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GCSE Chemistry · GCSEChapter 16 · Alcohols, carboxylic acids and polymers
GCSE · Chapter 16

Alcohols, carboxylic acids and polymers

By the end of this chapter you will be able to

  • Name the first alcohols and state the functional group
  • Compare fermentation and hydration for making ethanol
  • Write word equations for the reactions of a carboxylic acid
  • Draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer from its monomer
  • Compare thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers, and biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers

You should already know

  • Alkenes and the double bond (Chapter 15)
  • Balancing equations and Mr (Chapters 7 and 8)
  • Acids and salts (Chapter 10)

Where this leads

  • Crude oil as the source of monomers (Chapter 15)
  • Sustainability and recycling (Chapter 19)

GCSE Chemistry. Content follows the GCSE (9-1) subject content for England (Edexcel and AQA). Content references: Describe the alcohols as a homologous series with the -OH group (general formula CnH2n+1OH), Compare making ethanol by fermentation and by hydration of ethene, Describe carboxylic acids (-COOH) and their reactions with carbonates, alkalis and metals, [H] Describe esters, and the reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid, Draw the repeat unit of addition polymers, and compare thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers, including [H] condensation polymers.

Exercise P  Do you remember?

1
FWhat is the formula of an alkene with 2 carbon atoms? Write the formula.
2
FWhat is the Mr of CO2? Write the number.
3
FWhich substance is produced when an acid reacts with a metal carbonate, apart from the salt and water? Write the name.
4
FWhat is 2 x 46 + 2 x 44? Write the number.
5
FWhich group does sodium belong to? Write the number.
16.1

Alcohols and making ethanol

GCSE
Describe the alcohols as a homologous series with the -OH group, Compare making ethanol by fermentation and by hydration of ethene
Video lesson: Alcohols and making ethanolComing soon
Context. A pupil reads a label on a bottle of wine and an alcohol-free fuel. “Both contain alcohol, so are they the same?” asks the pupil. Both contain ethanol, the simplest alcohol, but it is made in different ways in different products.

The alcohols are a homologous series with the -OH functional group. Their general formula is CnH2n+1OH. The first alcohols are methanol (CH3OH), ethanol (C2H5OH), propanol and butanol. Ethanol is used as a solvent, a fuel and in drinks.

Ethanol is made in two ways. In fermentation, yeast converts sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide without air (anaerobically): C6H12O6 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2. In hydration, ethene from crude oil reacts with steam: C2H4 + H2O -> C2H5OH.

ethanol (alcohol)CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH-OHethanoic acid (carboxylic acid)CH<sub>3</sub>COOH-COOHfunctional groups: the -OH group of alcohols and the -COOH group of carboxylic acids
Ethanol (alcohol) and ethanoic acid (carboxylic acid)
MethodStarting materialConditionsNotes
fermentationsugar (glucose) and yeastanaerobic, about 30 degrees Crenewable; slow; uses an impure mixture
hydration of etheneethene and steama phosphoric acid catalyst, about 300 degrees C, high pressurefast and pure; uses crude oil
Two ways to make ethanol

Key ideas

  • Alcohols have the -OH functional group and the general formula CnH2n+1OH.
  • Fermentation: sugar and yeast, anaerobic, about 30 degrees C; renewable but slow.
  • Hydration: ethene and steam, a phosphoric acid catalyst, high temperature and pressure; fast and pure.
  • Ethanol is a solvent, a fuel and the alcohol in drinks.
Worked example 16.1.1
What is the general formula of the alcohols? Write the formula.

Method. Recall the general formula.

  1. Recall. Alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH.
    CnH2n+1OH
  2. Check. For ethanol, n = 2: C2H5OH, which fits.
    C2H5OH
  3. Write the answer.
    CnH2n+1OH

Check. The -OH group is the functional group. ✓

Worked example 16.1.2
Name the functional group of an alcohol. Write the formula of the group.

Method. Recall the functional group.

  1. Recall. Alcohols contain the -OH group.
    -OH
  2. Decide. So the functional group is -OH.
    -OH
  3. Write the answer.
    -OH

Check. Ethanol is C2H5OH. ✓

Worked example 16.1.3
Why is ethanol made by fermentation in a closed vessel? Write one reason.

Method. Think about the conditions.

  1. Look. Fermentation is anaerobic: it needs no air.
    anaerobic
  2. Conclude. A closed vessel keeps air out, so the process is anaerobic.
    keeps air out
  3. Write the answer.
    to keep air out, so the fermentation is anaerobic

Check. The yeast works best at about 30 degrees C. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: fermentation is slow and makes an impure product. Hydration uses crude oil and is fast, but it is not renewable. Compare them in terms of the feedstock, speed and purity.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Compare the two methods using a table: starting material, conditions, speed, purity and whether it is renewable.

Exercise 16A  Alcohols and making ethanol

1
FWhat is the name of the simplest alcohol? Write the name.
2
FWhat is the functional group of alcohols? Write the formula.
3
FWhat is the formula of methanol? Write the formula.
4
FWhat is the formula of ethanol? Write the formula.
5
FWhich raw material is used in fermentation to make ethanol? Write the words.
6
FWhat is the name of the microorganism used in fermentation? Write the name.
7
FWhat is the temperature used in fermentation, approximately? Write the number in degrees C.
8
FWhat is the catalyst used in the hydration of ethene? Write the name.
9
PSCalculate the Mr of ethanol, C2H5OH. Write the number.
10
PSIn fermentation, 180 g of glucose makes 92 g of ethanol and 88 g of carbon dioxide. Is mass conserved? Write yes or no.
11
PSWrite the word equation for the hydration of ethene. Write the product.
12
RExplain why fermentation is described as a renewable method of making ethanol, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says the sugar comes from plants, which can be grown again.
13
RCompare the two methods of making ethanol, in one or two sentences. Accept any answer that says fermentation uses renewable sugar but is slow, while hydration is fast and uses crude oil.
16.2

Carboxylic acids and esters [H]

GCSE
Describe carboxylic acids (-COOH) and their reactions with carbonates, alkalis and metals, [H] Describe esters, and the reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid
Video lesson: Carboxylic acids and esters [H]Coming soon
Context. A bottle of vinegar contains ethanoic acid, which gives it its sour taste. “Is ethanoic acid a normal acid?” asks a pupil. Yes: it is a carboxylic acid, with the -COOH group, and it reacts with carbonates, alkalis and metals like other acids.

Carboxylic acids contain the -COOH functional group. Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is the carboxylic acid in vinegar. Carboxylic acids are weak acids, and they react like other acids: with carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide; with alkalis to form a salt and water; and with some metals to form a salt and hydrogen. The salt of ethanoic acid is an ethanoate.

[H] Higher tier only. An alcohol and a carboxylic acid react, with an acid catalyst, to form an ester and water. For example, ethanol and ethanoic acid give ethyl ethanoate: C2H5OH + CH3COOH -> CH3COOC2H5 + H2O. Esters have fruity smells and are used in flavourings and perfumes.

Key ideas

  • Carboxylic acids have the -COOH group.
  • Carboxylic acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide.
  • Carboxylic acid + alkali -> salt + water.
  • [H] Alcohol + carboxylic acid -> ester + water (acid catalyst).
Worked example 16.2.1
Write the word equation for ethanoic acid reacting with sodium carbonate. Write the products.

Method. Carbonates give a salt, water and carbon dioxide.

  1. Salt. The salt is sodium ethanoate.
    sodium ethanoate
  2. Others. Water and carbon dioxide are also made.
    water and carbon dioxide
  3. Write the answer.
    sodium ethanoate, water and carbon dioxide

Check. The reaction is like the one in Chapter 10. ✓

Worked example 16.2.2
Name the salt formed when ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide. Write the name.

Method. Name the salt from the metal and the acid part.

  1. Metal. The metal is sodium.
    sodium
  2. Acid part. Ethanoic acid gives ethanoate.
    ethanoate
  3. Salt. So the salt is sodium ethanoate.
    sodium ethanoate
  4. Write the answer.
    sodium ethanoate

Check. Water is also formed. ✓

Worked example 16.2.3
[H] What is the name of the ester formed from ethanol and ethanoic acid? Write the name.

Method. Name the ester from the alcohol and the acid.

  1. Alcohol part. The alcohol is ethanol, giving the ethyl group.
    ethyl
  2. Acid part. The acid is ethanoic acid, giving ethanoate.
    ethanoate
  3. Ester. So the ester is ethyl ethanoate.
    ethyl ethanoate
  4. Write the answer.
    ethyl ethanoate

Check. It has a fruity smell. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: carboxylic acids are weak acids, so they are not as strong as hydrochloric acid, but they still react with carbonates, alkalis and metals like other acids.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name a salt of a carboxylic acid with “-oate”: ethanoic acid gives ethanoates.

Exercise 16B  Carboxylic acids and esters [H]

1
FWhat is the functional group of a carboxylic acid? Write the formula.
2
FWhat is the formula of ethanoic acid? Write the formula.
3
FWhat gas is produced when a carboxylic acid reacts with a carbonate? Write the name.
4
FWhat is the salt formed when ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide? Write the name.
5
FWhat is the other product, besides a salt, when a carboxylic acid reacts with an alkali? Write the name.
6
FWhat type of acid is ethanoic acid compared with hydrochloric acid? Write the word: strong or weak.
7
FName the salt of ethanoic acid. Write the ending.
8
PS[H] What is the name of the ester formed from methanol and ethanoic acid? Write the name.
9
F[H] Write the word equation for an alcohol and a carboxylic acid forming an ester. Write the products.
10
PS[H] Ethyl ethanoate is made from ethanol and ethanoic acid. Is the other product water? Write yes or no.
11
RExplain why ethanoic acid is still an acid, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says it releases H+ ions in water, like other acids.
12
R[H] Explain why esters have fruity smells, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says esters are used in flavourings and perfumes because of their smell.
16.3

Addition polymers and their repeat units

GCSE
Draw the repeat unit of addition polymers from the monomer
Video lesson: Addition polymers and their repeat unitsComing soon
Context. A plastic bag, a pipe and a bottle are made from different polymers. “How are these long molecules made?” asks a pupil. Small molecules called monomers join together in long chains, a process called polymerisation.

In addition polymerisation, many small monomers with a C=C double bond join to form a long chain, with no other product. The repeat unit is the part of the chain that is repeated; it is written in brackets with n for a large number. Poly(ethene) is made from ethene; poly(propene) from propene; and PVC (poly(chloroethene)) from chloroethene.

monomers (ethene)C=CC=CC=Cpolymerisepolymer[ -CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>2</sub>- ]<sub>n</sub>the repeat unit is in the brackets; n is a large number
Addition polymerisation: monomers join to give a long chain with a repeat unit
MonomerFormulaRepeat unit of the polymerPolymer
etheneCH2=CH2-CH2-CH2-poly(ethene)
propeneCH2=CHCH3-CH(CH3)-CH2-poly(propene)
chloroetheneCH2=CHCl-CH2-CHCl-PVC (poly(chloroethene))
Monomers, repeat units and polymers

Key ideas

  • Addition polymers form from alkene monomers, with no other product.
  • The repeat unit has the same atoms as the monomer, with the double bond opened.
  • PVC: chloroethene monomer; repeat unit has a Cl on alternate carbons.
  • Write the repeat unit with brackets and n outside.
Worked example 16.3.1
Write the repeat unit of poly(ethene) from its monomer, ethene (CH2=CH2). Write the repeat unit.

Method. Open the double bond and join the monomers.

  1. Open. The C=C becomes C-C, with each carbon bonded to the next monomer.
    C-C
  2. Repeat. The repeat unit is the CH2CH2 unit.
    CH2-CH2
  3. Write the answer.
    -CH2-CH2-

Check. Each carbon keeps two hydrogens in the repeat unit. ✓

Worked example 16.3.2
Write the repeat unit of PVC from chloroethene, CH2=CHCl. Write the repeat unit.

Method. Keep the Cl on one carbon of each unit.

  1. Open. The double bond opens; each carbon keeps one bond to the next unit.
    open
  2. Repeat. The unit has CH2 and CHCl.
    CH2-CHCl
  3. Write the answer.
    -CH2-CHCl-

Check. Chlorine is kept in every repeat unit. ✓

Worked example 16.3.3
What is the repeat unit of poly(propene), from the monomer CH2=CHCH3? Write the unit.

Method. Keep the methyl group on the same carbon.

  1. Open. The double bond opens and the CH3 stays on the middle carbon.
    CH3 stays
  2. Repeat. The unit is -CH(CH3)-CH2-.
    CH(CH3)-CH2
  3. Write the answer.
    -CH(CH3)-CH2-

Check. Poly(propene) has a methyl group on each unit. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: the repeat unit is not the same as the monomer. The double bond is opened, and the carbons are joined to the neighbouring units.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Draw the monomer, open the double bond, and write the repeat unit in brackets with n.

Exercise 16C  Addition polymers and their repeat units

1
FWhat is the name of the process that joins monomers into a long chain? Write the name.
2
FWhat is the name of the small molecules that join to form a polymer? Write the name.
3
FWhat is the monomer used to make poly(ethene)? Write the name.
4
FWhat is the monomer used to make PVC? Write the name.
5
FWhich functional group must a monomer have to form an addition polymer? Write the words.
6
FIn the repeat unit of poly(ethene), how many carbon atoms are there? Write the number.
7
FWrite the repeat unit of poly(ethene). Write the unit.
8
FWrite the repeat unit of PVC. Write the unit.
9
FDoes addition polymerisation produce another product besides the polymer? Write yes or no.
10
PSWhat is the formula of the monomer chloroethene? Write the formula.
11
PSWrite the monomer for the polymer with repeat unit -CH(CH3)-CH2-. Write the name.
12
RExplain why a polymer made by addition has no other product, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says the double bond opens and the monomers join with no atoms lost.
16.4

Condensation polymers [H] and types of polymer

GCSE
[H] Describe condensation polymers (idea), Compare thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers
Video lesson: Condensation polymers [H] and types of polymerComing soon
Context. A pupil heats a plastic cup and it softens; a melamine plate does not melt when it is heated. “Why do the two plastics behave differently?” asks the pupil. The answer is the structure: long chains that are not joined together, or chains cross-linked into a network.

Thermosoftening polymers have long, separate chains. When heated, they soften, and they can be remoulded. Thermosetting polymers have cross-linked chains, with strong bonds between them. When heated, they do not soften; they decompose or char. Thermosetting polymers are used for electrical plugs and kitchen utensils.

[H] Higher tier only. Condensation polymers form when monomers with two functional groups join, with a small molecule (such as water) lost each time. Polyesters and nylon are examples. The repeat unit has the atoms of both monomers minus the small molecule.

PropertyThermosoftening polymerThermosetting polymer
when heatedsoftens and can be remouldeddoes not soften; it decomposes or chars
structurelong chains, not cross-linkedcross-linked chains, strong bonds between them
examplespoly(ethene), PVCmelamine, bakelite (epoxy resins)
Thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers

Key ideas

  • Thermosoftening: long chains, soften when heated, can be remoulded.
  • Thermosetting: cross-linked chains, do not soften, decompose or char.
  • [H] Condensation polymers lose a small molecule (for example water) as they form.
  • Polyesters and nylon are condensation polymers.
Worked example 16.4.1
Are thermosetting polymers able to be remoulded when heated? Write yes or no.

Method. Recall the property.

  1. Recall. Thermosetting polymers do not soften when heated.
    no
  2. Decide. So they cannot be remoulded.
    cannot remould
  3. Write the answer.
    no

Check. Thermosoftening polymers can be remoulded. ✓

Worked example 16.4.2
Why do thermosetting polymers not soften? Write the words.

Method. Think about the structure.

  1. Look. Thermosetting polymers have cross-links between the chains.
    cross-links
  2. Conclude. The strong cross-links hold the chains in place when heated.
    hold in place
  3. Write the answer.
    the cross-links hold the chains in place

Check. Thermosoftening chains can slide past each other. ✓

Worked example 16.4.3
[H] What small molecule is lost when a condensation polymer forms, typically? Write the name.

Method. Recall the byproduct.

  1. Recall. In a condensation reaction, a small molecule such as water is lost.
    water
  2. Decide. So the answer is water.
    water
  3. Write the answer.
    water

Check. The polymer has the atoms of both monomers minus the water. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: do not call a thermosetting polymer “thermosoftening”. The difference is whether the polymer softens when it is heated.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Link the property to the structure: cross-links for thermosetting, separate chains for thermosoftening.

Exercise 16D  Condensation polymers [H] and types of polymer

1
FWhich type of polymer can be remoulded when heated? Write the word.
2
FWhich type of polymer does not soften when heated? Write the word.
3
FWhat links the chains in a thermosetting polymer? Write the words.
4
FIs poly(ethene) a thermosoftening or a thermosetting polymer? Write the word.
5
F[H] Name a condensation polymer. Write the name. Accept polyester or nylon.
6
F[H] What small molecule is lost when a condensation polymer forms, typically? Write the name.
7
RExplain why a thermosetting plastic is used for electrical plugs, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says it does not melt or soften, so it is safe to handle near heat.
8
RExplain why a thermosoftening polymer can be recycled by melting, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says it softens when heated, so it can be remoulded.
16.5

Biodegradable polymers and the environment

GCSE
Compare biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers and their effect on the environment
Video lesson: Biodegradable polymers and the environmentComing soon
Context. A council wants to use plastic bags that break down in a compost heap. “Are all plastics the same?” asks a councillor. No: some polymers are biodegradable and break down with microorganisms, while others last for a very long time.

A biodegradable polymer is broken down by microorganisms into simple substances. Many polymers, such as poly(ethene), are non-biodegradable: they remain in landfill for many years. Plastics that are not recycled can litter the land and the sea, and burning them can release toxic gases. Choosing a material means balancing its properties, cost and environmental impact.

Key ideas

  • Biodegradable: broken down by microorganisms into simple substances.
  • Non-biodegradable: remains for many years; poly(ethene) and PVC are examples.
  • Recycling and reuse reduce the waste of polymers.
  • Choose a material by its properties, cost and environmental impact.
Worked example 16.5.1
Is poly(ethene) biodegradable or non-biodegradable? Write the word.

Method. Recall the property.

  1. Recall. Poly(ethene) is non-biodegradable, so it stays in landfill for many years.
    non-biodegradable
  2. Decide. So the answer is non-biodegradable.
    non-biodegradable
  3. Write the answer.
    non-biodegradable

Check. It is often recycled. ✓

Worked example 16.5.2
Name one biodegradable polymer used to make packaging. Write the name. Accept any one of: starch-based plastics, PLA.

Method. Recall a biodegradable polymer.

  1. Recall. Starch-based plastics are biodegradable.
    starch-based
  2. Decide. Microorganisms break them down into simple substances.
    breaks down
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any one of: starch-based plastics, PLA.

Check. Microorganisms break these polymers down. ✓

Worked example 16.5.3
Give one environmental problem caused by non-recycled plastics. Write the words.

Method. Think about where the plastic goes.

  1. Look. Plastic that is not recycled often ends up in landfill or litter.
    landfill or litter
  2. Conclude. It can stay for many years and harm wildlife.
    harm wildlife
  3. Write the answer.
    it stays for many years and can harm wildlife

Check. Accept any sensible environmental problem. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: “biodegradable” does not mean the material is always better. It depends on the conditions: many biodegradable plastics need a warm, moist composting site to break down.

Exam tip

Exam tip. In an evaluation, give a property, a cost, and an environmental impact for each material, and reach a balanced conclusion.

Exercise 16E  Biodegradable polymers and the environment

1
FWhat does biodegradable mean? Write the words.
2
FIs poly(ethene) biodegradable? Write yes or no.
3
FIs PVC biodegradable? Write yes or no.
4
FName a biodegradable material made from plants. Write the name. Accept starch-based plastics.
5
FWhat is one reason plastics should be recycled? Write the words. Accept reduces waste or saves raw materials.
6
RExplain why burning non-biodegradable plastics is harmful, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says burning can release toxic gases into the air.
7
REvaluate a biodegradable carrier bag against a poly(ethene) bag, in one or two sentences. Accept any answer that says the biodegradable bag breaks down, but it may need composting conditions and cost more.
8
RExplain why a material with good properties may still be a poor choice for the environment, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says its environmental impact, such as non-biodegradable waste, must also be considered.

Chapter summary

SkillMethod
AlcoholsCnH2n+1OH; -OH group; ethanol from fermentation or hydration.
Carboxylic acids-COOH; react with carbonates, alkalis and metals; salts are ethanoates.
[H] EstersAlcohol + carboxylic acid -> ester + water (acid catalyst).
Addition polymersMonomers with C=C join with no other product; repeat unit in brackets.
Polymer typesThermosoftening: separate chains, soften. Thermosetting: cross-linked, do not soften.
[H] Condensation polymersMonomers join with a small molecule (often water) lost each time.
BiodegradabilityBiodegradable polymers are broken down by microorganisms; poly(ethene) and PVC are not.

Can you…?

  • I can describe the alcohols and the two methods of making ethanol
  • I can describe carboxylic acids and their reactions with carbonates, alkalis and metals
  • [H] I can describe esters and their formation
  • I can draw the repeat unit of an addition polymer from its monomer
  • I can compare thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers, and biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials

Key terms

alcohol
an organic compound with the -OH functional group
carboxylic acid
an organic acid with the -COOH functional group
fermentation
the conversion of sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeast, without air
monomer
a small molecule that joins with others to form a polymer
repeat unit
the unit of a polymer chain that is repeated; written in brackets
thermosoftening polymer
a polymer with separate chains that softens when heated
thermosetting polymer
a polymer with cross-linked chains that does not soften when heated
ester
[H] a compound formed from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, with a fruity smell

Exercise 16Z  Check-up

1
What is the general formula of the alcohols? Write the formula.
2
What is the name of the functional group in a carboxylic acid? Write the formula.
3
What gas is made when a carboxylic acid reacts with a carbonate? Write the name.
4
What is the monomer used to make poly(propene)? Write the name.
5
Write the repeat unit of poly(ethene). Write the unit.
6
Name the type of polymer that does not soften when heated. Write the word.
7
Name the main product of hydration of ethene. Write the name.
8
What is the name of the process that uses yeast to make ethanol from sugar? Write the name.
9
[H] What is the name of the ester formed from ethanol and ethanoic acid? Write the name.
10
Explain why fermentation is slower than hydration, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says yeast is a living organism, so the reaction depends on its growth and conditions.

Total 25 marks. Allow about 25 minutes.

Exercise 16X  Exam-style questions

1
FName the two methods of making ethanol and the starting materials for each. Write four names.[3 marks]
2
FWrite the word equation for ethanoic acid reacting with magnesium carbonate. Write the products.[3 marks]
3
FDraw or describe the repeat unit of PVC. Write the unit.[2 marks]
4
RExplain the difference between thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers, in two sentences. Accept any answer that says thermosoftening polymers have separate chains and soften, while thermosetting polymers have cross-links and do not soften.[4 marks]
5
RExplain why ethanol made by fermentation is described as renewable, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says the sugar comes from crops, which can be grown again.[2 marks]
6
F[H] Write the word equation for ethanol and ethanoic acid forming an ester. Write the name of the ester.[2 marks]
7
FWrite the repeat unit of poly(propene). Write the unit.[2 marks]
8
RExplain why poly(ethene) is a problem for the environment, in two sentences. Accept any answer that says it is non-biodegradable and stays in landfill or litter for many years.[3 marks]
9
R[H] Explain what happens to the small molecule in a condensation polymerisation, in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says a small molecule, such as water, is lost each time two monomers join.[2 marks]
10
FName the functional group of an alcohol and of a carboxylic acid. Write the two formulae.[2 marks]
← Chapter 15: Crude oil, alkanes and alkenesChapter 17: Chemical analysis: purity, chromatography and identifying substances →

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