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GCSE History · GCSEChapter 2 · Interpretations of the past
GCSE · Chapter 2

Interpretations of the past

By the end of this chapter you will be able to

  • Say what an interpretation claims and what evidence it uses
  • Compare two interpretations on cause, emphasis or judgement
  • Explain why historians can disagree about the same past
  • Use one accurate fact of my own to support or challenge an interpretation

You should already know

  • Source analysis: provenance, purpose and utility (Chapter 1)
  • Reading a short extract carefully

Where this leads

  • Causation (Chapter 3)
  • Significance and how far answers (Chapter 6)

GCSE History. Content follows the GCSE (9-1) subject content for England (Edexcel and AQA). Content references: Explain what an interpretation is: an argument about the past, supported by evidence and shaped by the historian, Read an interpretation for its main argument, emphasis and judgement, Identify how and why interpretations differ, including new evidence, different questions, perspective and time, Use own knowledge to support or challenge an interpretation, and answer a how far question.

Exercise P  Do you remember?

1
FWrite the word for a source that was made later by a historian, not at the time. The word starts with s.
2
FName the type of source a painting is. Write one word.
3
FWrite the word for the origin of a source: who made it, when, why and for whom. The word starts with p.
4
FHow many years are there from 1900 to 1950? Write the number.
5
FWrite the name of the city where Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in June 1914. Write one word.
2.1

What an interpretation is

GCSE
Explain what an interpretation is: an argument about the past, supported by evidence and shaped by the historian
Video lesson: What an interpretation isComing soon
Context. In Chapter 1 you judged sources. Now you meet a different kind of text: an interpretation. Three historians have written about the railway at Hollin Bridge. Each one reaches a different view. Before you judge them, you need to know what they are.

An interpretation is a historian’s view of the past. It makes a claim, called an argument, and supports it with evidence. An interpretation is always secondary: it is written later, by someone who studies the evidence.

Every interpretation is shaped by three things: the time when it was written, the place and background of the historian, and the question the historian set out to answer. Two historians with different questions can read the same evidence and reach different views.

Interpretation A (invented interpretation for practice). Author: Harold Penney, a schoolmaster (invented). Date: 1902. From a local history booklet (invented).

The railway made Hollin Bridge. Within ten years the mill had doubled its output, wages rose, and a village became a market town. The enterprise of the company, not chance, was the cause of this prosperity.

Interpretation B (invented interpretation for practice). Author: Dr Ruth Calloway, social historian (invented). Date: 1971. From a university textbook (invented).

The railway’s gains were real but narrow. Cheap coal helped the mill owners, who grew rich, while most labourers gained little beyond cheaper food. The power of the owners, not the engine, decided who benefited.

Interpretation C (invented interpretation for practice). Author: Dr Lena Ortiz, economic historian (invented). Date: 2010. From a journal article (invented).

The railway changed Hollin Bridge least in its first decade. The real improvement in people’s lives came later, through drains and clean water, which the trains did not provide. Health reform, not transport, did most to raise living standards.

Key ideas

  • An interpretation is an argument about the past, supported by evidence.
  • It is secondary: written later, by a historian who has studied the evidence.
  • Time, place, background and the question shape every interpretation.
  • Always name the author and the date before you judge an interpretation.
Worked example 2.1.1
Interpretation A was written in 1902 by a schoolmaster. Is it a primary or a secondary source? Explain why.

Method. Check the date and the author against the events of the 1850s.

  1. Check the date. The railway opened in the 1850s and the interpretation is dated 1902, long after.
    1902: later
  2. Check the author. A schoolmaster writing a local history later is not a witness, so the text is secondary.
    later, not first-hand
  3. Write the answer.
    secondary

Check. Interpretations are always secondary, even when their authors had sources.

Worked example 2.1.2
Which interpretation is the most recent? Write the letter.

Method. Compare the three dates.

  1. Read the dates. Interpretation A is dated 1902, B is dated 1971, and C is dated 2010.
    1902, 1971, 2010
  2. Choose the latest. The latest date is 2010, so the most recent is Interpretation C.
    2010 is largest
  3. Write the answer.
    C

Check. Recent interpretations may use evidence that earlier historians did not have.

Worked example 2.1.3
Interpretation B was written by a social historian in 1971. Name the question it seems to answer about the railway. Accept any answer that asks who gained from the railway.

Method. Look at what the interpretation is about.

  1. Look at the claim. Interpretation B says the gains were narrow and that owners decided who benefited.
    who gained
  2. Name the question. So the question is who gained from the railway.
    who gained from the railway
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any answer that asks who gained from the railway.

Check. The question a historian asks shapes the argument.

Watch out

Watch out: an interpretation is not a fact. “The railway made Hollin Bridge” is a claim that needs evidence and can be challenged. Say the author’s argument, not just the event.

Exam tip

Exam tip. When you describe an interpretation, say whose it is and when it was written. Then state the argument in your own words.

Exercise 2A  What an interpretation is

1
FInterpretation A is written by a schoolmaster in 1902. Is it a primary or secondary source? Write the word.
2
FWhich of the three interpretations is the most recent? Write the letter.
3
FWhich interpretation says the railway’s gains were narrow? Write the letter.
4
FWhich interpretation says the railway changed Hollin Bridge least in its first decade? Write the letter.
5
FWrite the word for the main claim of an interpretation, the thing the historian is trying to show. Write one word.
6
FAn interpretation is shaped by the time, the place and the background of its author, and by the ____ the historian asks. Write the missing word.
7
FGive the date of Interpretation C. Write the year.
8
FWrite the name of the author of Interpretation B, and the year it was written.
(a)(a) the author
(b)(b) the year
9
RExplain in one sentence what an interpretation is. Accept any sentence that says it is a historian’s view of the past, supported by evidence and argument.
10
PSGive one way the historian’s time can shape an interpretation. Accept any answer that says the values or knowledge of the period when it was written shape what is noticed or judged.
11
PSGive one way the question a historian asks can shape an interpretation. Accept any answer that says a different question leads to different evidence and a different argument.
12
RWhy might the same evidence lead to two different interpretations? Accept any answer that says the historians chose different evidence, emphasis or questions.
2.2

Reading an interpretation for its argument

GCSE
Read an interpretation for its main argument, emphasis and judgement
Video lesson: Reading an interpretation for its argumentComing soon
Context. Before you compare two interpretations, you must be able to state each one clearly. Read it once for the main claim, then a second time for the evidence and the judgement.

To read an interpretation for its argument, ask four questions: what is the main claim? What evidence does the author give? What does the author emphasise (what gets the most attention)? And what judgement does the author reach about cause, change or who benefited?

Words such as “real but narrow”, “changed least” and “the cause of” show the judgement. Find them and quote them exactly.

Key ideas

  • Main claim: the argument in one sentence.
  • Evidence: the facts the author uses to support the claim.
  • Emphasis: the cause or group the author stresses most.
  • Judgement: the author’s conclusion about cause, change or benefit.
Worked example 2.2.1
Interpretation A says the mill “had doubled its output”. What kind of evidence is this? Write one word.

Method. Decide what kind of claim it is.

  1. Look at the claim. It is a number about output, which can be measured.
    a measurable change
  2. Name the kind. Evidence about output is economic evidence.
    economic
  3. Write the answer.
    economic

Check. Economic evidence measures trade, output, wages or prices.

Worked example 2.2.2
What does Interpretation C say did most to raise living standards? Quote the words exactly.

Method. Find the sentence with the judgement.

  1. Find the sentence. Interpretation C says “Health reform, not transport, did most to raise living standards”.
    Health reform, not transport, did most
  2. Quote the answer. The answer is the phrase that names the cause.
    Health reform
  3. Write the answer.
    Health reform

Check. Quote only what is needed; the full sentence is also accepted.

Worked example 2.2.3
Interpretation B says “the power of the owners, not the engine, decided who benefited”. What is the author’s judgement about the cause of uneven benefits? Write one word.

Method. Look for the word that names the cause the author prefers.

  1. Find the cause. The author says the owners decided, not the engine.
    the owners
  2. Name the cause. The author places the cause in the owners’ power.
    owners’ power
  3. Write the answer.
    power

Check. The phrase “not the engine” shows what the author rejects.

Watch out

Watch out: a summary of the event is not the argument. “The railway came to the village” is a fact. “The railway made the village prosperous” is an argument.

Exam tip

Exam tip. In a question about an interpretation, state the main claim in one sentence before you add any evidence or own knowledge.

Exercise 2B  Reading an interpretation for its argument

1
FInterpretation A says the enterprise of the company was the cause of prosperity. Quote the phrase that names this cause, exactly as in the source.
2
FInterpretation A says the mill had doubled its output. Write the words that say what the mill did.
3
FInterpretation A gives a sign of rising prosperity for workers. Write the two words that show this.
4
FInterpretation B says most labourers gained little beyond something cheap. Write the two words.
5
FInterpretation B says the power of the owners decided who benefited. Write the words that name this cause.
6
FInterpretation C says the railway changed Hollin Bridge least in its first decade. Write the word that names what improved people’s lives later.
7
FWhat does Interpretation C say did most to raise living standards? Write the words.
8
FInterpretation B says the gains of the railway were “real but ____”. Write the missing word.
9
PSWrite one short phrase that gives the main claim of Interpretation C. Accept any phrase that says health reform, not the railway, improved lives.
10
PSWhat is the author’s judgement about the cause of prosperity in Interpretation A? Accept any answer that says the company’s enterprise caused it, not chance.
11
PSGive one piece of evidence used in Interpretation B. Accept any answer that names cheap coal, the owners’ wealth, or labourers’ cheaper food.
12
FWhich interpretation puts the most emphasis on the owners? Write the letter.
13
RIdentify the argument of Interpretation A in one sentence. Accept any sentence that says the railway company caused the village’s prosperity.
2.3

How and why interpretations differ

GCSE
Identify how and why interpretations differ, including new evidence, different questions, perspective and time
Video lesson: How and why interpretations differComing soon
Context. Two interpretations of the same railway can disagree sharply. A useful answer names the difference exactly, then explains why the historians differ.

Interpretations differ in three main ways. They can differ in emphasis (which factor is stressed), in cause (which factor is the main reason for a change), or in judgement (whether the change was good, bad, large or small).

Historians differ for four main reasons: new evidence (later sources or records), different questions (what they ask), perspective (their background and values) and time (the period when they wrote, and what that period valued).

Key ideas

  • Differences: emphasis, cause, judgement.
  • Reasons: new evidence, different questions, perspective, time.
  • Name the difference first, then the reason.
  • Two interpretations can use the same evidence and still differ.
Worked example 2.3.1
Do Interpretations A and B disagree about whether labourers’ wages rose? Write yes or no.

Method. Compare what each says about workers.

  1. Interpretation A. It says “wages rose”.
    wages rose
  2. Interpretation B. It says most labourers gained little beyond cheaper food.
    gained little
  3. Decide. They disagree about the size of the gain for workers.
    yes
  4. Write the answer.
    yes

Check. The disagreement is about how much workers gained.

Worked example 2.3.2
Interpretation C was written in 2010. Give one reason why its author might have different evidence from the 1902 author. Accept any answer that names new evidence, such as health records or drain-building records.

Method. Think about what was available in 2010 but not in 1902.

  1. Think. Later historians can use records that were not studied before.
    new records
  2. Link. The 2010 author can use health and drainage records to test the argument.
    health and drain records
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any answer that names new evidence, such as health records or drain-building records.

Check. New evidence is one of the main reasons interpretations change.

Worked example 2.3.3
Name one difference in emphasis between Interpretations A and C. Accept any answer that says A stresses the company’s enterprise, while C stresses health reform.

Method. Compare what each interpretation stresses.

  1. A. A stresses the enterprise of the company.
    company
  2. C. C stresses health reform and drains.
    health reform
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any answer that says A stresses the company’s enterprise, while C stresses health reform.

Check. Emphasis is about which factor the author puts first.

Watch out

Watch out: “they disagree” is not enough. Say what they disagree about (emphasis, cause or judgement) and then say why.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Use the pattern: “Interpretation A says… but Interpretation B says…. This is because…” Then give one reason.

Exercise 2C  How and why interpretations differ

1
FDo Interpretations A and B disagree about whether labourers’ wages rose? Write yes or no.
2
FDo Interpretations A and C disagree about the main cause of later improvement? Write yes or no.
3
PSName one difference in emphasis between Interpretations A and B. Accept any answer that says A stresses the company’s enterprise and success, while B stresses the owners’ power and the narrow gains.
4
FWhich interpretation makes the judgement that the gains were narrow? Write the letter.
5
FWhich interpretation says health reform was the main cause of rising living standards? Write the letter.
6
PSWhy might Interpretation C have been written in 2010? Give one reason. Accept any answer that says a later historian has new evidence, such as health records, and different questions.
7
FWrite two words for the reason historians may use evidence that earlier writers did not have. The words start with n and e.
8
FWrite the word for the view a historian holds because of their background, values or position. The word starts with p.
9
RExplain, with the word emphasis, why Interpretations A and C differ. Accept any answer that says A emphasises the company, while C emphasises health reform, so they stress different causes.
10
RIs it possible for two historians to use the same evidence and reach different interpretations? Write yes or no.
11
RWrite one sentence explaining why Interpretation B and Interpretation C disagree about living standards. Accept any sentence that says B stresses the owners’ power and narrow gains, while C says health reform did most.
2.4

Using own knowledge to support or challenge an interpretation

GCSE
Use own knowledge to support or challenge an interpretation, and answer a how far question
Video lesson: Using own knowledge to support or challenge an interpretationComing soon
Context. A question may ask “How far do you agree with Interpretation A?” You must weigh the interpretation against the evidence and your own knowledge of the period, then reach a judgement.

To support an interpretation, add an accurate fact from your own knowledge that fits its argument. To challenge it, name a fact or a factor it leaves out. A how far answer gives a judgement such as “partly”, and explains which parts are supported and which are not.

Facts marked check fact must be confirmed in your own textbook or specification before you use them.

Key ideas

  • To support: add an accurate fact that fits the argument.
  • To challenge: name a fact or factor the interpretation leaves out.
  • A how far answer ends with a judgement: fully, partly or not.
  • Use own knowledge to test the argument, not to repeat the source.
Worked example 2.4.1
Using your own knowledge, name one factor other than the railway that helped towns grow in the 1850s. Accept any answer that names coal, iron, industry or a rising population.

Method. Think about what made towns grow.

  1. Recall. Towns grew with coal, iron, factories and workers moving in.
    coal, iron, factories
  2. Link. So the railway was not the only cause of the growth shown in Interpretation A.
    not the only cause
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any answer that names coal, iron, industry or a rising population.

Check. Check fact: confirm the details in your textbook.

Worked example 2.4.2
Interpretation C says health reform did most to raise living standards. Give one piece of own knowledge that supports this. Accept any answer that names cholera outbreaks leading to public health reform.

Method. Think about the health problems that led to reform.

  1. Recall. Cholera outbreaks in the 1840s and 1850s led to public health concern.
    cholera
  2. Link. That supports the view that health reform improved lives.
    supports C
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any answer that names cholera outbreaks leading to public health reform.

Check. Check fact: confirm the outbreak years in your textbook.

Worked example 2.4.3
How far do you agree with Interpretation A? Write one word: fully, partly or not.

Method. Test the claim against what you know.

  1. Support. The interpretation is right that the railway brought some change and that trade grew.
    some support
  2. Challenge. It ignores other causes and the poor health of workers, so it is not complete.
    ignores other causes
  3. Write the answer.
    partly

Check. A partly judgement is supported by reasons on both sides.

Watch out

Watch out: “I agree” or “I disagree” with no reasons earns very little. Always give one reason that supports and one that challenges.

Exam tip

Exam tip. A how far answer: state the interpretation, give one point that supports it, one that challenges it, then conclude with a judgement.

Exercise 2D  Using own knowledge to support or challenge

1
RUsing your own knowledge, name one factor other than a railway that helped towns grow in the 1850s. Accept any answer that names coal, iron, industry or a rising population.
2
RUsing your own knowledge, challenge Interpretation A: write one reason the railway may not be the only cause of rising wages. Accept any answer naming demand for goods, new industries, or other changes at the time.
3
FWhich interpretation gives the most weight to health reform? Write the letter.
4
FUsing your own knowledge, name the disease whose spread in towns in the 1840s and 1850s led to public health concern. Write the word. (check fact)
5
RInterpretation B says owners gained most. Using your own knowledge, write one thing a historian would check to test this. Accept any answer naming wages, profits or account books.
6
RInterpretation A says the company’s enterprise was the cause of prosperity. Using own knowledge, name one other factor a historian would check. Accept any answer naming coal supply, demand for goods or the wider economy.
7
PSHow far do you agree with Interpretation A? Write one word: fully, partly or not.
8
FName one interpretation that a historian might use to challenge Interpretation C. Write the letter.
9
RExplain in one sentence how own knowledge can help you challenge an interpretation without copying the source. Accept any sentence that says you can name an accurate fact and show how it changes or limits the argument.
10
PSGive one reason to doubt Interpretation A, which was written in 1902 by a local schoolmaster. Accept any answer that says it may be a celebratory local history or may overstate the company’s role.
11
RName one type of evidence a historian could use to test Interpretation C. Accept any answer naming health records, mortality figures or drain-building records.
12
RWrite a one-sentence conclusion for “How far do you agree with Interpretation B?” Accept any sentence giving a clear judgement with one reason.

Chapter summary

SkillMethod
Identify an interpretationA historian’s argument about the past, supported by evidence; always secondary
Read for the argumentMain claim, evidence, emphasis and judgement; quote the key words
Compare interpretationsName the difference (emphasis, cause or judgement), then explain why
Explain differencesNew evidence, different questions, perspective and time
Support or challengeOne accurate own-knowledge fact that fits or limits the argument
How far answersJudgement, one point for, one point against, conclusion

Can you…?

  • I can say what an interpretation is and why it is secondary.
  • I can state the main argument of an interpretation in my own words.
  • I can name the difference between two interpretations: emphasis, cause or judgement.
  • I can explain why historians differ, using the four reasons.
  • I can use one accurate fact of my own to support or challenge an argument.
  • I can give a judgement in a how far answer, with reasons on both sides.

Key terms

interpretation
a historian’s argument about the past, supported by evidence
argument
the main claim an interpretation puts forward
evidence
facts or sources used to support a claim
emphasis
the factor an author puts most weight on
judgement
the conclusion an author reaches about cause, change or benefit
perspective
the view a historian holds because of background, values or position
school of thought
a group of historians who share a broad approach or set of views
hypothesis
a testable idea a historian puts forward and then checks against evidence

Exercise 2Z  Check-up

1
Interpretation C was written in 2010. Is it a primary or secondary source? Write the word.
2
Which interpretation stresses the power of the owners? Write the letter.
3
Quote the phrase in Interpretation A that names the cause of prosperity, exactly as in the source.
4
Write the word for the main claim of an interpretation. One word.
5
Which interpretation says health reform did most to raise living standards? Write the letter.
6
Name one reason why historians can disagree about the same past. Accept any answer naming new evidence, different questions, perspective or time.
7
Interpretation B says the gains were “real but ____”. Write the missing word.
8
Do Interpretations A and B disagree about whether labourers’ wages rose? Write yes or no.
9
Using your own knowledge, name the disease linked to dirty water in towns in the 1840s and 1850s. Write the word. (check fact)
10
Explain in one sentence why an interpretation needs evidence. Accept any sentence that says evidence supports the argument so that it can be judged.

Total 27 marks. Allow about 27 minutes.

Exercise 2X  Exam-style questions

1
PSAn invented interpretation (2010) says: “Health reform, not transport, did most to raise living standards.” Is this an interpretation or a fact? Write one word. (Invented source for practice.)[1 mark]
2
PSAn invented interpretation (2010) says that health reform, not transport, was the main factor behind rising living standards. Write one word: the type of claim this sentence makes about what caused the change, “cause” or “chance”.[1 mark]
3
PSAn invented interpretation (1902), written by a schoolmaster, says: “the mill had doubled its output”. Give one reason a historian might doubt this view. Accept any answer that says the author may celebrate the village, or that the claim may be unsupported by evidence.[2 marks]
4
PSAn invented interpretation (1971) says: “Cheap coal helped the mill owners, who grew rich, while most labourers gained little beyond cheaper food.” Name the group that the interpretation says gained most. Write the words.[2 marks]
5
RAn invented interpretation (2010) says health reform did most to raise living standards. Using your own knowledge, give one accurate fact that supports or challenges this view. Accept any accurate fact about public health reform in the 1840s and 1850s, such as cholera outbreaks leading to reform.[2 marks]
6
RTwo historians wrote about the same railway. One (1902) says the company’s enterprise caused prosperity. Another (2010) says health reform did most to raise living standards. Explain two reasons why historians can reach different interpretations of the same railway. Accept any two of: new evidence, different questions, perspective, time.[3 marks]
7
RInterpretation A (invented, 1902) says the railway’s prosperity came from “the enterprise of the company, not chance”. Interpretation B (invented, 1971) says “the power of the owners, not the engine, decided who benefited”. Compare the two interpretations on who or what caused the change. Accept any answer that says A credits the company’s enterprise, while B credits the owners’ power.[3 marks]
8
RAn invented interpretation (1902) says: “The enterprise of the company, not chance, was the cause of this prosperity.” How far do you agree? Use one piece of evidence and one piece of own knowledge. Accept any answer with a clear judgement, one point from the interpretation and one accurate own-knowledge point.[4 marks]
9
RAn invented interpretation (1902) says the mill had doubled its output and that wages rose. Explain how evidence about public drains could be used to challenge this view. Accept any answer that says drain and health records could show that living conditions did not improve as much as wages suggest.[4 marks]
10
RAn invented interpretation (2010) says “the railway changed Hollin Bridge least in its first decade”, and another (1971) says “the gains were real but narrow”. How far do these two interpretations agree? Give a balanced judgement, comparing their arguments and using one piece of own knowledge. Accept any answer that makes a balanced judgement, compares their arguments on change and benefit, uses an accurate own-knowledge point, and reaches a conclusion.[5 marks]
← Chapter 1: Source analysis and utilityChapter 3: Causation: causes, triggers and importance →

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