Reading non-fiction: reliability, rhetoric and synthesis across sources
By the end of this chapter you will be able to
- I can name the purpose and audience of a non-fiction text.
- I can identify ethos, pathos and logos, and say how far each works.
- I can test the evidence in a source, including sample size and selective use.
- I can say who wrote a source, when, and why, and what that means for trust.
- I can summarise one source in a sentence.
- I can combine several sources into one account, and judge which is most reliable.
You should already know
- Identifying fact and opinion in a non-fiction text (Year 8, Chapter 5 of this book)
- Identifying persuasive language in a short text (Year 8, Chapter 5 of this book)
Where this leads
- Comparing texts: ideas, methods and sustained comparison (Year 9, Chapter 6 of this book)
- Writing for purpose and audience: reviews, reports, letters and articles (Year 9, Chapter 12 of this book)
National Curriculum for England, Key Stage 3 English, Year 9. Content: Read widely in non-fiction: comment, leaflets, letters and reports (KS3 reading, R1), Evaluate reliability, bias and rhetoric in several sources, including ethos, pathos and logos (KS3 reading, R4), Summarise the main points of a source in your own words (KS3 reading, R6), Synthesise the main ideas of several sources into one account, using evidence accurately (KS3 reading, R6 and R7).
Exercise P Do you remember?
Method. A fact can be proved true or false; an opinion is a personal view.
- Think about a fact. A fact can be checked against evidence.checked against evidence
- Think about an opinion. An opinion is a view that may not be proved.a view
- Write the difference. A fact can be checked, and an opinion is a view.a fact can be checked, an opinion is a view
- Write the answer. a fact can be checked, an opinion is a view
Check. The two definitions are contrasted. ✓
Method. A synonym has nearly the same meaning.
- Think about the meaning. A claim is a statement that something is true.a statement that something is true
- Choose a synonym. An assertion is a confident statement that something is true.assertion
- Write the answer. assertion
Check. assertion means much the same as claim. ✓
Method. Per cent means out of one hundred.
- Think about the word. Per cent means for each hundred.for each hundred
- Write the meaning. A percentage is a number out of one hundred.a number out of one hundred
- Write the answer. a number out of one hundred
Check. Per cent means out of one hundred. ✓
Method. Most nouns form the plural by adding s.
- Look at the word. Survey ends in ey, so the y follows a vowel.vowel + y
- Form the plural. Keep the y and add s, so the plural is surveys.surveys
- Write the answer. surveys
Check. Survey takes an s in the plural. ✓
Method. The person who writes a text is its author.
- Think about the role. The writer of a book, article or letter is its author.writer of a text
- Name it. The word is author.author
- Write the answer. author
Check. An author is the writer. ✓
Purpose and audience
Source A: a newspaper comment column (original, fictional paper)
1Every parent knows what happens when the alarm goes off at eight. The children are still in bed, and the school gates are full of yawns.
2Our pupils deserve a proper day, and the answer is simple: start earlier and finish earlier, as we always did.
3The Eastfield survey proves it. Ninety per cent of pupils said they would rather finish by three.
4Teachers already know the truth. A later start is a fashion, and fashions do not teach maths.
Source B: a leaflet from a sleep charity (original, fictional charity)
1Teenagers need around eight to ten hours of sleep each night.
2Their body clocks shift later during adolescence, so many are alert late at night and tired early in the morning.
3A later start can help. In one trial at a school in another county, attendance rose by four per cent after the start moved from 8.30 to 9.15 a.m.
4That trial had 180 pupils and ran for one term, so the results may differ elsewhere.
Source C: a letter to the editor (original, fictional writer)
1Dear Editor,
2My son's school has moved to a later start, and I now see him leave the house at a quarter past eight with his breakfast in his hand.
3I am sure it is good for him, but I worry about the traffic outside the gates and how he will get home in the dark in winter.
4Perhaps the answer is a trial, with parents asked first. Anita Shah, Northmoor.
Source D: a summary of a school trial (original, fictional school)
1Summary of the trial at Brackenfield School.
2From September, the start for Years 7 to 9 moved from 8.30 a.m. to 9.15 a.m. for one term.
3Attendance for these years rose from 92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent, and lateness fell by 14 per cent.
4Staff reported no change in exam marks over the term. The governing body will review the trial in July.
Key ideas
- Purpose is what the writer wants to achieve: to persuade, inform, report, or express a view.
- Audience is who the writer expects to read the text, and how that shapes the language.
- Form (comment, leaflet, letter, report) gives clues about purpose and audience.
Method. Look at the verbs and claims, then say what the writer wants the reader to do.
- Read the claims. It says the answer is to start earlier and finish earlier.start earlier and finish earlier
- Look at the tone. It uses a confident, firm tone, with a clear call to action.firm
- Name the purpose. The writer wants readers to agree that the start should be earlier.to persuade readers that schools should start earlier
- Write the answer. to persuade readers that schools should start earlier
Check. The purpose is supported by the claim and tone. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. A leaflet from a sleep charity is written for families, to explain sleep and what a trial found.parents and young people, to inform them about sleep fits
- Reject the other choices. The leaflet does not address teachers only or ministers only.teachers only and government ministers only do not fit
- Write the answer. parents and young people, to inform them about sleep
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Compare the form and the language of each source.
- Look at the title. Source D is titled as a summary of a trial.Summary of the trial
- Look at the language. It gives dates, numbers and staff reports, without a call to action.staff reported
- Decide. Source D is the most like a formal report.Source D
- Write the answer. Source D
Check. The form and the language match a report. ✓
Watch out
Watch out: purpose and audience are not the same. A text can inform one audience and persuade another.
Exam tip
Exam tip. Name the purpose, the audience, and one piece of form or language that shows it.
Exercise 5A Practice: purpose and audience
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. Paragraph 1 describes the gates to make a point.the school gates are full of yawns
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.the school gates are full of yawns
- Write the answer. the school gates are full of yawns
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Count the paragraphs in the source, then find the one that matches.
- Count the paragraphs. The box numbers each paragraph, starting at 1.the paragraph numbers in the box
- Find the matching paragraph. Paragraph 2 says the answer is to start earlier.2
- Write the answer. 2
Check. Paragraph 2 matches the detail. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. A letter to the editor shares personal worry and suggests a trial with parents asked first.to share a parent's personal experience and suggest a trial fits
- Reject the other choices. Source C reports no exam results and sells nothing.to report exam results and to sell a product do not fit
- Write the answer. to share a parent's personal experience and suggest a trial
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. Rose is a verb that reports a measured change in attendance.rose fits
- Reject the other choices. Proves and fashion are judgements or opinions, not a plain report of a change.proves and fashion do not fit
- Write the answer. rose
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Look at who is addressed and what is asked.
- Find the address. The letter begins Dear Editor.Dear Editor
- Find the request. The writer suggests a trial with parents asked first.a trial, with parents asked first
- Write the answer. parents and the editor's readers, who are asked to consider a trial.
Check. The audience is named with a reason. ✓
Method. Read the words around the word, then give its meaning in your own words.
- Read the context. The phrase "lateness fell by 14 per cent" is about sleep, school or the trial.lateness fell by 14 per cent
- Give the meaning. The meaning fits the phrase.arriving after the time when school starts
- Write the answer. arriving after the time when school starts
Check. The meaning fits the phrase. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. A leaflet from a charity explains sleep and reports a trial, so it informs.to inform families about sleep and a trial fits
- Reject the other choices. Source B does not sell alarm clocks or argue against all change.to sell alarm clocks and to argue against all changes do not fit
- Write the answer. to inform families about sleep and a trial
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Count the paragraphs in the source, then find the one that matches.
- Count the paragraphs. The box numbers each paragraph, starting at 1.the paragraph numbers in the box
- Find the matching paragraph. Paragraph 3 describes the trial in another county.3
- Write the answer. 3
Check. Paragraph 3 matches the detail. ✓
Method. Name the form, then say what a reader expects from it.
- Name the form. It is a comment column in a newspaper.comment column
- Link to the purpose. Readers expect an opinion, so the persuasion fits.an opinion
- Write the answer. It is a newspaper comment column, which suits persuasion because it gives an opinion to a wide readership.
Check. The form and its purpose are linked. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. The writer names a concern in paragraph 3.I worry about the traffic outside the gates
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.I worry about the traffic outside the gates
- Write the answer. I worry about the traffic outside the gates
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Compare the words each writer chooses.
- Tone of A. Source A uses firm and emotive words.firm and emotive
- Tone of D. Source D reports numbers in a neutral way.neutral
- Write the answer. Source A is firm and emotive, while Source D is neutral and factual, with dates and numbers.
Check. The two tones are contrasted. ✓
Method. Think about what each writer wants and who reads it.
- Find the purpose. Each source has a different purpose.different purpose
- Link to the choices. So each writer chooses different evidence.different evidence
- Write the answer. Each writer has a different purpose and audience, so each chooses different evidence and words.
Check. The difference is explained. ✓
Rhetoric: ethos, pathos and logos
Source A: a newspaper comment column (original, fictional paper)
1Every parent knows what happens when the alarm goes off at eight. The children are still in bed, and the school gates are full of yawns.
2Our pupils deserve a proper day, and the answer is simple: start earlier and finish earlier, as we always did.
3The Eastfield survey proves it. Ninety per cent of pupils said they would rather finish by three.
4Teachers already know the truth. A later start is a fashion, and fashions do not teach maths.
Source B: a leaflet from a sleep charity (original, fictional charity)
1Teenagers need around eight to ten hours of sleep each night.
2Their body clocks shift later during adolescence, so many are alert late at night and tired early in the morning.
3A later start can help. In one trial at a school in another county, attendance rose by four per cent after the start moved from 8.30 to 9.15 a.m.
4That trial had 180 pupils and ran for one term, so the results may differ elsewhere.
Key ideas
- Ethos: the writer's credibility or authority, such as a charity's expertise or a teacher's experience.
- Pathos: appeals to emotion, such as "the school gates are full of yawns".
- Logos: appeals to logic and evidence, such as numbers, facts and reasons.
Method. Find the emotional or vivid detail, then name the appeal.
- Look for an image. The gates are described as full of yawns.full of yawns
- Name the appeal. The image appeals to the reader's sense of tiredness and sympathy.tiredness and sympathy
- Quote it. The exact quotation is the school gates are full of yawns.the school gates are full of yawns
- Write the answer. the school gates are full of yawns
Check. The appeal is named with a quotation. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. A specific range of hours is a factual claim, which appeals to logic.logos (facts) fits
- Reject the other choices. It does not describe feelings, and it does not say who the writer is.pathos (emotion) and ethos (trust in the speaker) do not fit
- Write the answer. logos (facts)
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Think about who the writer is and why the reader might trust them.
- Find the author. The leaflet comes from a sleep charity.a sleep charity
- Judge the trust. A charity with a focus on sleep appears expert.appears expert
- Explain the effect. So the reader is likely to trust its advice.the reader is likely to trust its advice
- Write the answer. a charity with expertise, which makes the reader trust its advice
Check. The ethos is supported by the authorship. ✓
Watch out
Watch out: do not call an appeal "logos" just because it has a number. A number needs a clear source and a reason to be relevant.
Exam tip
Exam tip. Name the appeal (ethos, pathos or logos), quote the words, and say how far the appeal works on this reader.
Exercise 5B Practice: ethos, pathos and logos
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. It appeals to shared feeling and experience, which is emotional.pathos fits
- Reject the other choices. It gives no figures, and it does not name the writer as an expert.logos and ethos do not fit
- Write the answer. pathos
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. It gives a number, which is evidence.logos fits
- Reject the other choices. It does not express emotion or name a trusted expert.pathos and ethos do not fit
- Write the answer. logos
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. It claims the authority of teachers, which builds trust in the argument.Teachers already know the truth fits
- Reject the other choices. The gates are an emotional image, and the fashion remark is an opinion about fashion.the school gates are full of yawns and A later start is a fashion do not fit
- Write the answer. Teachers already know the truth
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. Paragraph 4 gives this dismissive judgement.A later start is a fashion
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.A later start is a fashion
- Write the answer. A later start is a fashion
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Read the words around the word, then give its meaning in your own words.
- Read the context. The phrase "A later start is a fashion" is about sleep, school or the trial.A later start is a fashion
- Give the meaning. The meaning fits the phrase.a trend that passes quickly
- Write the answer. a trend that passes quickly
Check. The meaning fits the phrase. ✓
Method. Find a fact or number, then name the appeal.
- Find the fact. The leaflet gives a range of hours.eight to ten hours
- Name the appeal. A specific fact is an appeal to logic.an appeal to logic
- Write the answer. "Teenagers need around eight to ten hours of sleep each night." is an example of logos.
Check. The factual quotation is named as logos. ✓
Method. Find a line that describes a person, then explain the feeling it creates.
- Find the line. The writer describes her son with his breakfast in his hand.his breakfast in his hand
- Explain the effect. The image creates sympathy for the boy's rushed morning.sympathy
- Write the answer. The line about the son leaving with his breakfast in his hand creates sympathy for a tired teenager.
Check. The pathos is quoted and explained. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. Source B gives facts about sleep and a trial, so logic is its main appeal.logos, because the leaflet uses facts about sleep fits
- Reject the other choices. The leaflet is not sad or funny, so those choices do not fit.pathos, because the leaflet is sad and ethos, because the leaflet is funny do not fit
- Write the answer. logos, because the leaflet uses facts about sleep
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Make a judgement about the trust, then support it with the evidence.
- Make the judgement. The ethos works partly.works partly
- Give the reason. The claim about teachers has no evidence.no evidence
- Write the answer. It works only partly, because it claims that teachers know the truth but gives no teacher's evidence.
Check. The judgement is supported by a reason. ✓
Method. Compare the appeals, then judge which would convince a sceptic.
- Name the appeals. Source A relies on emotion; Source B on facts.relies on emotion
- Judge. A sceptic is more convinced by checkable facts.checkable facts
- Write the answer. Source B is more likely to convince a sceptical reader, because its facts can be checked, while Source A relies on emotion.
Check. The judgement is supported by the appeals. ✓
Method. Think about how far the result applies to the reader.
- Find the phrase. The trial was in another county.in another county
- Explain the effect. The result may not apply to the reader's school.may not apply
- Write the answer. It shows the trial is a different place, so the results may not match the reader's school.
Check. The explanation is linked to the reader. ✓
Reliability: evidence, sample and selection
Source A: a newspaper comment column (original, fictional paper)
1Every parent knows what happens when the alarm goes off at eight. The children are still in bed, and the school gates are full of yawns.
2Our pupils deserve a proper day, and the answer is simple: start earlier and finish earlier, as we always did.
3The Eastfield survey proves it. Ninety per cent of pupils said they would rather finish by three.
4Teachers already know the truth. A later start is a fashion, and fashions do not teach maths.
Source B: a leaflet from a sleep charity (original, fictional charity)
1Teenagers need around eight to ten hours of sleep each night.
2Their body clocks shift later during adolescence, so many are alert late at night and tired early in the morning.
3A later start can help. In one trial at a school in another county, attendance rose by four per cent after the start moved from 8.30 to 9.15 a.m.
4That trial had 180 pupils and ran for one term, so the results may differ elsewhere.
Source D: a summary of a school trial (original, fictional school)
1Summary of the trial at Brackenfield School.
2From September, the start for Years 7 to 9 moved from 8.30 a.m. to 9.15 a.m. for one term.
3Attendance for these years rose from 92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent, and lateness fell by 14 per cent.
4Staff reported no change in exam marks over the term. The governing body will review the trial in July.
Key ideas
- Sample size: a small sample, such as 180 pupils for one term, is less reliable than a large, long study.
- Selection: a writer may quote a finding that supports the case and leave out the rest.
- Relevance: check that the evidence measures the thing the writer claims it measures.
Method. Read what the survey measured, then compare it with the claim.
- Read the survey finding. Ninety per cent said they would rather finish by three.Ninety per cent of pupils said they would rather finish by three
- Read the claim. The writer says the answer is to start earlier.start earlier and finish earlier
- Compare. The survey does not measure start time, so it does not prove the claim.the survey asked about finishing time, not start time
- Write the answer. the survey asked about finishing time, not start time
Check. The evidence and the claim are compared. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. A small sample over a short time may not apply to other schools.it included only 180 pupils for one term fits
- Reject the other choices. The author and the budget do not affect the sample size, and they are not in the trial description.it used a famous author and it had a large budget do not fit
- Write the answer. it included only 180 pupils for one term
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Look for one-sided claims and selective evidence.
- Check the argument. Source A argues only for an earlier start.start earlier and finish earlier
- Check the evidence. It uses a survey about finishing time, which it presents as proof.The Eastfield survey proves it
- Decide. Source A is the most biased, because its evidence is selective.Source A is the most biased
- Write the answer. Source A, because it argues one view and uses a selective survey
Check. The bias is supported by two details. ✓
Watch out
Watch out: a large sample is not always reliable if it measures the wrong thing. Ask both how many and what.
Exam tip
Exam tip. Say what the evidence measures, how big it is, and whether it supports the exact claim.
Exercise 5C Practice: reliability and selective evidence
Method. Find the number in the source.
- Find the number. The leaflet says the trial had 180 pupils.180 pupils
- Write the number. The number of pupils is 180.180
- Write the answer. 180
Check. The number is copied from the source. ✓
Method. Find the length of the trial.
- Find the length. The trial ran for one term.ran for one term
- Write the number. It lasted one term.1
- Write the answer. 1
Check. The trial lasted one term. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The survey finding is about pupils preferring to finish by three.the time pupils would like to finish fits
- Reject the other choices. The survey is not about start time or exam results.the time pupils would like to start and the exam results do not fit
- Write the answer. the time pupils would like to finish
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Think about the sample size and the place.
- Find the limit. The trial was small and short.small and short
- Link to the school. A different school may have different results.different results
- Write the answer. The trial had only 180 pupils for one term, so a different school may get different results.
Check. The reason is taken from the source. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. Source D gives the attendance figure in this form.92.1 per cent
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.92.1 per cent
- Write the answer. 92.1 per cent
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. Source D gives the second attendance figure in this form.93.0 per cent
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.93.0 per cent
- Write the answer. 93.0 per cent
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Subtract the earlier figure from the later one.
- Find the two figures. Attendance rose from 92.1 to 93.0 per cent.92.1 and 93.0
- Subtract. 93.0 minus 92.1 is 0.9.0.9
- Write the answer. 0.9
Check. 93.0 minus 92.1 is 0.9. ✓
Method. Name both figures and both schools, then compare them.
- Find the two figures. Source B reports four per cent; Source D reports 0.9 points.four per cent
- Compare. The results differ, so one school's result does not settle the question.does not settle
- Write the answer. Source B reports a rise of four per cent in another school, while Source D reports a rise of 0.9 percentage points at Brackenfield, so the results differ.
Check. Both figures are compared accurately. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. Source D reports a small rise of 0.9 percentage points.attendance rose a little fits
- Reject the other choices. Source D gives a figure of 0.9 points, not four per cent, and it reports no change in exam marks.attendance rose by four per cent and exam marks rose do not fit
- Write the answer. attendance rose a little
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Compare the claims and the evidence in each source.
- Find the caution in D. Source D reports figures and no change in exam marks.no change in exam marks
- Find the selection in A. Source A says the survey proves its point.proves it
- Write the answer. Source D reports figures and staff comments neutrally, while Source A makes claims without showing the evidence fully.
Check. The comparison uses evidence from both sources. ✓
Method. Look for the evidence, then judge the claim.
- Look for teacher evidence. Source A gives no teacher survey.Teachers already know the truth
- Judge. The claim has no evidence in the sources.no evidence
- Write the answer. It is not supported, because Source A gives no teacher evidence and the other sources do not report teachers' views.
Check. The judgement is based on the missing evidence. ✓
Method. Think about what a writer gains by selecting evidence.
- Name the choice. The writer may choose only results that support the argument.only results that support
- Name the effect. The reader then sees one side of the evidence.one side
- Write the answer. A writer may leave out results that weaken the case, such as a survey about start time that did not favour an early start.
Check. The selection is explained. ✓
Provenance: who wrote it, when, and why
Source C: a letter to the editor (original, fictional writer)
1Dear Editor,
2My son's school has moved to a later start, and I now see him leave the house at a quarter past eight with his breakfast in his hand.
3I am sure it is good for him, but I worry about the traffic outside the gates and how he will get home in the dark in winter.
4Perhaps the answer is a trial, with parents asked first. Anita Shah, Northmoor.
Source D: a summary of a school trial (original, fictional school)
1Summary of the trial at Brackenfield School.
2From September, the start for Years 7 to 9 moved from 8.30 a.m. to 9.15 a.m. for one term.
3Attendance for these years rose from 92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent, and lateness fell by 14 per cent.
4Staff reported no change in exam marks over the term. The governing body will review the trial in July.
Key ideas
- Provenance asks who wrote the source, when, and why, and whether they gain from the result.
- A letter is one person's experience and is not a survey of many people.
- A report of a trial is more reliable for what it measured, but limited to its own school and term.
Method. Find who wrote it, then say what kind of evidence it is.
- Find the writer. The letter is signed by Anita Shah.Anita Shah
- Name the kind of evidence. It is one parent's experience, not a survey.one parent's experience
- Explain the limit. So it cannot show what most parents think.cannot show what most parents think
- Write the answer. a parent's personal letter, so it reports one family's experience
Check. The provenance and its limit are explained. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. A measured trial gives figures from the school, which can be checked.a measured trial with attendance figures fits
- Reject the other choices. A single letter and a comment with no figures give only one view.a single letter from one parent and a newspaper comment with no figures do not fit
- Write the answer. a measured trial with attendance figures
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Compare the purpose and the evidence of each writer.
- Check the purpose of D. Source D summarises a trial for the governors.summarises a trial
- Check the purpose of A. Source A wants to persuade readers.to persuade readers
- Judge. A summary of measured results is less biased than a persuasive comment.Source D reports measured results and staff views, without a call to action
- Write the answer. Source D reports measured results and staff views, without a call to action
Check. The judgement compares purpose and evidence. ✓
Watch out
Watch out: a source is not false just because it has a purpose. Ask whether the purpose has shaped the evidence.
Exam tip
Exam tip. Name who wrote the source and why, then say what that means for the evidence.
Exercise 5D Practice: provenance
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. The letter is signed at the end.Anita Shah
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.Anita Shah
- Write the answer. Anita Shah
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Count the paragraphs in the source, then find the one that matches.
- Count the paragraphs. The box numbers each paragraph, starting at 1.the paragraph numbers in the box
- Find the matching paragraph. Paragraph 4 suggests a trial with parents asked first.4
- Write the answer. 4
Check. Paragraph 4 matches the detail. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. Its title says it is a summary of the trial, and it reports results.a summary of a school trial fits
- Reject the other choices. Source A is a comment and Source C is a letter.a newspaper comment and a letter to the editor do not fit
- Write the answer. a summary of a school trial
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. The last paragraph names the review date.The governing body will review the trial in July
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.The governing body will review the trial in July
- Write the answer. The governing body will review the trial in July
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Think about the number of people and the kind of evidence.
- Name the kind. It is an individual experience.individual experience
- Name the limit. It cannot represent everyone.cannot represent everyone
- Write the answer. It is one parent's experience, so it cannot show what most parents or pupils think.
Check. The limit is explained. ✓
Method. Find the suggestion, then infer the attitude.
- Find the suggestion. The writer suggests a trial.Perhaps the answer is a trial
- Infer the attitude. She wants parents involved.parents involved
- Write the answer. The writer is open to a trial, but wants parents involved, because she suggests parents are asked first.
Check. The attitude is supported by a quotation. ✓
Method. Read the words around the word, then give its meaning in your own words.
- Read the context. The phrase "the traffic outside the gates" is about sleep, school or the trial.the traffic outside the gates
- Give the meaning. The meaning fits the phrase.vehicles moving on a road
- Write the answer. vehicles moving on a road
Check. The meaning fits the phrase. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The letter worries about traffic and the dark journey home.traffic and getting home in the dark fits
- Reject the other choices. Source B discusses sleep hours and attendance, which are not the letter's concerns.sleep hours and attendance rates do not fit
- Write the answer. traffic and getting home in the dark
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Compare the job of each writer.
- Find the job. The summary reports to governors.reports to governors
- Compare. The comment seeks to persuade.seeks to persuade
- Write the answer. The governors must report the results, so the writer must report them accurately, unlike a writer seeking to persuade.
Check. The comparison of purpose is explained. ✓
Method. Keep the main point and drop the small details.
- Find the main point. Keep the change, the worry and the request.A parent says the later start has changed her son's mornings and worries about traffic, and asks for a trial.
- Check it is one sentence in your own words. A summary does not copy whole sentences.A parent says the later start has changed her son's mornings and worries about traffic, and asks for a trial.
- Write the answer. A parent says the later start has changed her son's mornings and worries about traffic, and asks for a trial.
Check. The summary keeps the main point only. ✓
Method. Think about how a writer's purpose can change the evidence.
- Name the link. Purpose shapes the evidence.shapes the evidence
- Explain the effect. A reader must check the purpose before trusting the figures.check the purpose
- Write the answer. Because a writer's purpose and position can shape which evidence is chosen and how it is presented.
Check. The link between provenance and evidence is explained. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. Measured figures with dates can be checked, which gives them more reliability.Source D reports measured results with dates and numbers fits
- Reject the other choices. Length and emotive words do not make evidence more reliable.Source D is longer and Source D uses more emotive words do not fit
- Write the answer. Source D reports measured results with dates and numbers
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Summarising one source
Source B: a leaflet from a sleep charity (original, fictional charity)
1Teenagers need around eight to ten hours of sleep each night.
2Their body clocks shift later during adolescence, so many are alert late at night and tired early in the morning.
3A later start can help. In one trial at a school in another county, attendance rose by four per cent after the start moved from 8.30 to 9.15 a.m.
4That trial had 180 pupils and ran for one term, so the results may differ elsewhere.
Key ideas
- A summary keeps the main claim and the main evidence, and drops minor detail.
- Use your own words. Do not copy whole sentences.
- A good summary is shorter than the source and accurate.
Method. Find the main claim and the main evidence, then write one sentence.
- Find the main claim. A later start can help teenagers.A later start can help
- Find the main evidence. A trial showed attendance rose by four per cent.attendance rose by four per cent
- Write one sentence. Combine the claim and evidence in your own words.a later start may help teenagers
- Write the answer. Sleep experts say a later start may help teenagers, because their body clocks shift later and a trial showed higher attendance.
Check. The summary keeps the claim and the evidence. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The number is a useful detail, but the main point is the claim about sleep and start time.the trial had 180 pupils fits
- Reject the other choices. The sleep range and the claim are the main points of the leaflet.teenagers need eight to ten hours of sleep and a later start can help do not fit
- Write the answer. the trial had 180 pupils
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Decide whether a limit is part of the main point.
- Find the limit. The leaflet says the results may differ elsewhere.the results may differ elsewhere
- Decide if it matters. The limit changes how far the claim can be trusted.how far the claim can be trusted
- Include it. A fair summary keeps the limit.to keep the limit on the results
- Write the answer. to keep the limit on the results
Check. The limit is kept in the summary. ✓
Watch out
Watch out: a summary that leaves out a limit is unfair. Keep the caveats the writer gives.
Exam tip
Exam tip. One sentence: the main claim, the main evidence, and any limit the writer admits.
Exercise 5E Practice: summarising one source
Method. Keep the main point and drop the small details.
- Find the main point. Keep the main fact.Teenagers need about eight to ten hours of sleep a night.
- Check it is one sentence in your own words. A summary does not copy whole sentences.Teenagers need about eight to ten hours of sleep a night.
- Write the answer. Teenagers need about eight to ten hours of sleep a night.
Check. The summary keeps the main point only. ✓
Method. Keep the main point and drop the small details.
- Find the main point. Keep the body clock and the tiredness.Teenagers' body clocks shift later, so they are alert late and tired early.
- Check it is one sentence in your own words. A summary does not copy whole sentences.Teenagers' body clocks shift later, so they are alert late and tired early.
- Write the answer. Teenagers' body clocks shift later, so they are alert late and tired early.
Check. The summary keeps the main point only. ✓
Method. Keep the main point and drop the small details.
- Find the main point. Keep the change, the small rise and the exam result.A trial moved the start to 9.15 a.m., and attendance rose a little while exam marks did not change.
- Check it is one sentence in your own words. A summary does not copy whole sentences.A trial moved the start to 9.15 a.m., and attendance rose a little while exam marks did not change.
- Write the answer. A trial moved the start to 9.15 a.m., and attendance rose a little while exam marks did not change.
Check. The summary keeps the main point only. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The leaflet argues that a later start can help, based on a trial.a later start can help teenagers sleep and attend fits
- Reject the other choices. The leaflet says sleep matters, and it does not say sleep does not matter or that alarm clocks are the answer.sleep does not matter and alarm clocks are the answer do not fit
- Write the answer. a later start can help teenagers sleep and attend
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. The fourth paragraph gives the size of the trial.That trial had 180 pupils
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.That trial had 180 pupils
- Write the answer. That trial had 180 pupils
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Count the paragraphs in the source, then find the one that matches.
- Count the paragraphs. The box numbers each paragraph, starting at 1.the paragraph numbers in the box
- Find the matching paragraph. The last paragraph says the results may differ elsewhere.4
- Write the answer. 4
Check. Paragraph 4 matches the detail. ✓
Method. Read the words around the word, then give its meaning in your own words.
- Read the context. The phrase "during adolescence" is about sleep, school or the trial.during adolescence
- Give the meaning. The meaning fits the phrase.the period of life between childhood and adulthood
- Write the answer. the period of life between childhood and adulthood
Check. The meaning fits the phrase. ✓
Method. Keep the claim and the limit.
- Keep the claim. A later start may help.A later start may help
- Keep the limit. A small trial may not apply everywhere.may not apply everywhere
- Write the answer. A later start may help teenagers, because their body clocks shift later, though a single small trial may not apply everywhere.
Check. The claim and the limit are kept. ✓
Method. Keep the claim and the survey.
- Keep the claim. Schools should start and finish earlier.start and finish earlier
- Keep the evidence. The survey is about finishing time.finishing time
- Write the answer. The writer argues that schools should start and finish earlier, using a survey about finishing time to support the view.
Check. The claim and its evidence are kept. ✓
Method. Think about what a summary shows the reader.
- Name the risk. Copying whole sentences does not show understanding.does not show understanding
- Name the purpose. A summary shows the main points in your own words.your own words
- Write the answer. Copying whole sentences shows no understanding, and a summary should show that the main points have been understood.
Check. The reason is explained. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The sentence keeps the change, the small rise and the unchanged marks.The trial moved the start to 9.15 a.m., attendance rose slightly, and exam marks did not change. fits
- Reject the other choices. The source does not say the trial failed, and the governing body has not decided to end the change.The trial was a complete failure. and The school is ending its start times. do not fit
- Write the answer. The trial moved the start to 9.15 a.m., attendance rose slightly, and exam marks did not change.
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Synthesising several sources into one account
Source B: a leaflet from a sleep charity (original, fictional charity)
1Teenagers need around eight to ten hours of sleep each night.
2Their body clocks shift later during adolescence, so many are alert late at night and tired early in the morning.
3A later start can help. In one trial at a school in another county, attendance rose by four per cent after the start moved from 8.30 to 9.15 a.m.
4That trial had 180 pupils and ran for one term, so the results may differ elsewhere.
Source D: a summary of a school trial (original, fictional school)
1Summary of the trial at Brackenfield School.
2From September, the start for Years 7 to 9 moved from 8.30 a.m. to 9.15 a.m. for one term.
3Attendance for these years rose from 92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent, and lateness fell by 14 per cent.
4Staff reported no change in exam marks over the term. The governing body will review the trial in July.
Key ideas
- Synthesis combines main ideas from several sources into one account.
- Name the source for each piece of evidence, and use exact figures.
- Weigh the sources: say which evidence is most reliable, and why.
Method. Find the attendance point in each source, then combine them.
- Find B. Source B reports a rise of four per cent in another county.attendance rose by four per cent
- Find D. Source D reports a rise from 92.1 to 93.0 per cent.from 92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent
- Combine. Both show a rise, but the size and the school differ.the size and the school differ
- Write the answer. Both report a rise in attendance, but Source B's rise is four per cent in another school and Source D's is 0.9 points at Brackenfield.
Check. Both attendance figures are used accurately. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The two sources agree on a possible benefit, but they show different sizes of effect and small samples.both trials suggest a later start may help, but the evidence is small and the results vary fits
- Reject the other choices. Proof of always better is not in either source, and exam marks did not rise in Source D.both trials prove that a later start is always better and both trials show exam marks rose do not fit
- Write the answer. both trials suggest a later start may help, but the evidence is small and the results vary
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Compare what each source measured and how.
- Compare the measures. Source D gives two dated figures from one school.92.1 per cent
- Compare the evidence in B. Source B gives a rise of four per cent in a trial of 180 pupils elsewhere.180 pupils
- Judge. Source D's measured figures are more reliable for the school it describes.Source D
- Write the answer. Source D, because it reports a measured figure from the school with dates
Check. The judgement compares the two measures. ✓
Watch out
Watch out: a synthesis is not a list. Say what the sources agree on and where they differ.
Exam tip
Exam tip. Start with what the sources agree on, then say where they differ, then judge which evidence is strongest.
Exercise 5F Practice: synthesis across sources
Method. Find the figure in Source B.
- Find the figure. The leaflet says attendance rose by four per cent.attendance rose by four per cent
- Copy it. The figure is four per cent.four per cent
- Write the answer. four per cent
Check. The figure is copied exactly. ✓
Method. Find the two figures in Source D.
- Find the figures. Attendance rose from 92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent.92.1 per cent to 93.0 per cent
- Write them. The figures are 92.1 per cent and 93.0 per cent.92.1 per cent and 93.0 per cent
- Write the answer. 92.1 per cent and 93.0 per cent
Check. Both figures are exact. ✓
Method. Find a point that appears in both.
- Find B. Source B reports a rise.attendance rose
- Find D. Source D reports a rise too.rose from 92.1
- Write the answer. Both sources suggest that a later start may help attendance, and both report a rise.
Check. The shared point is found in both sources. ✓
Method. Compare the size and the place of the results.
- Find the size in B. Four per cent.four per cent
- Find the size in D. 0.9 points.0.9 points
- Write the answer. Source B reports four per cent elsewhere, while Source D reports 0.9 points at Brackenfield.
Check. The difference is named with figures. ✓
Method. Name the shared point, then the limit.
- Name the shared point. Both suggest a later start may help.may help
- Name the limit. The trials were small and short.small and short
- Write the answer. Both sources suggest a later start may help attendance, but the evidence is from small, one-term trials that may not apply elsewhere.
Check. The synthesis names the point and the limit. ✓
Method. Name what they share, then what they disagree about.
- Shared point. Both discuss start times.start times
- Difference. A argues for earlier, B for later.earlier, B for later
- Write the answer. Both mention the start time, but Source A claims an earlier start is better, while Source B says a later start can help teenagers.
Check. The shared point and the difference are named. ✓
Method. Find the weakest use of evidence, and say why.
- Find the weak evidence. The survey is about finish time.finishing time
- Judge. So the claim about start time is not supported.not supported
- Write the answer. Source A is least reliable, because it uses a survey about finishing time to prove a claim about start time.
Check. The judgement is supported. ✓
Method. Make a judgement, then give one detail from the chosen source.
- Make the judgement. Source D is most reliable.most reliable
- Give the reason. It reports dated figures from the school.dated figures
- Write the answer. Source D is most reliable on attendance, because it reports dated, measured figures from the school itself.
Check. The judgement is supported by a detail. ✓
Method. Summarise the balance of evidence, not a single view.
- Note the disagreement. The sources do not agree on one answer.do not agree
- Note the evidence. The evidence suggests a possible benefit, with limits.possible benefit
- Write the answer. The sources do not agree on one answer, but the evidence on sleep and attendance suggests a later start may help, with limits.
Check. The synthesis is balanced. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. 93.0 minus 92.1 is 0.9 percentage points, a rise.attendance rose by 0.9 percentage points fits
- Reject the other choices. Nine per cent is far too large, and the figures show a rise, not a fall.attendance rose by 9 per cent and attendance fell by 0.9 points do not fit
- Write the answer. attendance rose by 0.9 percentage points
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Chapter summary
| Skill | Method |
|---|---|
| Purpose and audience | Name what the writer wants, who reads it, and one clue of form or language |
| Ethos, pathos, logos | Name the appeal, quote the words, and say how far it works |
| Reliability | Say what the evidence measured, how big it is, and whether it fits the claim |
| Provenance | Name who wrote it, when, and why, and what that means for the evidence |
| Summary | One sentence: the main claim, the main evidence, and any limit |
| Synthesis | Say what the sources agree on, where they differ, and which evidence is strongest |
Can you…?
- I can name the purpose and audience of a source
- I can name ethos, pathos or logos, with a quotation
- I can test a claim against the evidence and its sample
- I can say who wrote a source, and why it matters
- I can summarise a source in one sentence, with its limit
- I can synthesise several sources with exact figures
Key terms
- purpose
- what a writer wants to achieve with a text
- audience
- the readers a writer expects, and whose needs shape the language
- ethos
- an appeal to trust in the writer's credibility
- pathos
- an appeal to the reader's emotions
- logos
- an appeal to logic, evidence and reasons
- provenance
- the origin of a source: who made it, when and why
- sample size
- how many people or events a piece of evidence covers
- synthesis
- combining the main ideas of several sources into one account
Exercise 5Z Check-up
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. Source A argues for an earlier start in a comment column.to persuade readers to change the start time fits
- Reject the other choices. Source A does not report trial results or sell a product.to report trial results and to sell a product do not fit
- Write the answer. to persuade readers to change the start time
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Search the source for the words the question asks for.
- Find the place in the source. The first paragraph of Source B gives the range.eight to ten hours of sleep
- Copy the words exactly. Copy them with no change, so that the words match the source.eight to ten hours of sleep
- Write the answer. eight to ten hours of sleep
Check. The words are copied exactly from the source. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The image of yawns appeals to feeling and sympathy.pathos fits
- Reject the other choices. It gives no figures, and it does not name the writer as an expert.logos and ethos do not fit
- Write the answer. pathos
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Find the sample size.
- Find the number. The trial had 180 pupils.180
- Write it. The number is 180.180
- Write the answer. 180
Check. The sample size is copied. ✓
Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.
- Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
- Test the choice. The survey finding is about pupils preferring to finish by three.the preferred finishing time fits
- Reject the other choices. The survey did not measure start time or exam results.the preferred starting time and exam results do not fit
- Write the answer. the preferred finishing time
Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓
Method. Subtract the earlier figure from the later figure.
- Find the figures. 92.1 and 93.0 per cent.92.1 and 93.0
- Subtract. 93.0 minus 92.1 is 0.9.0.9
- Write the answer. 0.9
Check. The rise is 0.9 points. ✓
Method. Read the words around the word, then give its meaning in your own words.
- Read the context. The phrase "The governing body will review the trial" is about sleep, school or the trial.The governing body will review the trial
- Give the meaning. The meaning fits the phrase.the people who oversee a school
- Write the answer. the people who oversee a school
Check. The meaning fits the phrase. ✓
Method. Think about the size of the change.
- Find the size. The rise is 0.9 points.0.9 points
- Explain the doubt. A small change may be chance.may be chance
- Write the answer. The rise was only 0.9 percentage points, which is a small change that may be due to chance.
Check. The doubt is based on the figures. ✓
Method. Keep the main point and drop the small details.
- Find the main point. Keep the change, the worry and the request.A parent has seen a change in her son's mornings, worries about traffic, and asks for a trial.
- Check it is one sentence in your own words. A summary does not copy whole sentences.A parent has seen a change in her son's mornings, worries about traffic, and asks for a trial.
- Write the answer. A parent has seen a change in her son's mornings, worries about traffic, and asks for a trial.
Check. The summary keeps the main point only. ✓
Method. Name the balance of evidence.
- Name the disagreement. The sources disagree.disagree
- Name the balance. The evidence suggests a possible benefit with limits.possible benefit
- Write the answer. The sources disagree, but the evidence suggests a later start may help attendance, with limits on the trials.
Check. The synthesis is balanced. ✓
Total 23 marks. Allow about 23 minutes.
Exercise 5X Practice test questions
Method. Find the trial length and copy it.
- Find the length. The trial ran for one term.ran for one term
- Copy it exactly. Copy with no change.ran for one term
- Write the answer. ran for one term
Check. The phrase is exact. ✓
Method. Look at what the writer wants readers to do.
- Look at the claims. The writer argues for an earlier start.start earlier and finish earlier
- Name the purpose. The purpose is to persuade.persuade
- Write the answer. persuade
Check. The purpose is persuasion. ✓
Method. Find the emotive image and quote it.
- Find the image. The gates are full of yawns.full of yawns
- Quote it. Copy the phrase exactly.the school gates are full of yawns
- Write the answer. the school gates are full of yawns
Check. The quotation is exact. ✓
Method. Compare what the survey measured with the claim.
- Find what it measured. The survey asked about finishing time.finishing time
- Compare with the claim. The claim is about starting earlier.starting earlier
- Write the answer. The survey asked about finishing time, so it cannot prove that schools should start earlier.
Check. The mismatch is explained. ✓
Method. Find a limit in the source and say why it matters.
- Find the limit. The trial had 180 pupils for one term.180 pupils
- Say why it matters. The results may differ elsewhere.may differ elsewhere
- Write the answer. It had only 180 pupils for one term, so the results may differ elsewhere.
Check. The reason uses a figure. ✓
Method. Name the appeal, then judge its effect.
- Name the appeal. It is a factual range, which appeals to logic.logos
- Judge the effect. The fact can be checked, which makes it effective.can be checked
- Write the answer. It is logos, a factual claim, which is effective because it can be checked.
Check. The appeal and judgement are given. ✓
Method. Name the kind of evidence, then its limit.
- Name the kind. It is one parent's experience.one parent's experience
- Name the limit. It cannot show what all parents think.cannot show what all parents think
- Write the answer. It is one parent's experience, so it cannot show what all parents think.
Check. The limit is explained. ✓
Method. Subtract the first figure from the second.
- Find the figures. Attendance rose from 92.1 to 93.0 per cent.92.1 and 93.0
- Subtract. 93.0 minus 92.1 is 0.9.0.9
- Write the answer. 0.9
Check. 93.0 minus 92.1 is 0.9. ✓
Method. Use one figure from each source, then compare.
- Use B's figure. Source B reports four per cent.four per cent
- Use D's figure. Source D reports 0.9 points.0.9 points
- Write the answer. Source B reports a four per cent rise elsewhere, while Source D reports a 0.9 point rise at Brackenfield.
Check. Both figures are used. ✓
Method. Keep the change, the result and the exam finding.
- Keep the change. The start moved to 9.15 a.m.9.15 a.m.
- Keep the findings. Attendance rose slightly and exam marks did not change.no change in exam marks
- Write the answer. The trial moved the start to 9.15 a.m., attendance rose slightly, and exam marks did not change.
Check. The main finding is kept. ✓
Method. Choose the source, then give one reason.
- Choose the source. Source D reports measured figures.Source D
- Give the reason. It gives dated figures from the school.dated figures
- Write the answer. Source D, because it reports dated, measured figures from the school itself.
Check. The judgement is supported. ✓