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KS3 Science · Year 9Chapter 4 · Earth's structure and the rock cycle
Year 9 · Chapter 4

Earth's structure and the rock cycle

By the end of this chapter you will be able to

  • Name the layers of the Earth and say what each is made of
  • Give the evidence for continental drift and the idea of tectonic plates
  • Link earthquakes and volcanoes to the three types of plate boundary
  • Describe how igneous and sedimentary rocks form, and identify them by their texture
  • Describe the rock cycle, including metamorphic rock, over very long timescales

You should already know

  • Rocks and soils (Year 3 Science, Chapter 7)
  • Sedimentary layers and fossils, from earlier school science

Where this leads

  • The solar system and the Earth in space (Chapter 5)

National Curriculum for England, Key Stage 3 science, Year 9. Content: 9E1 the structure of the Earth: crust, mantle, outer and inner core; tectonic plates and continental drift (basic evidence), 9E1 earthquakes and volcanoes at plate boundaries, 9E2 the rock cycle: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and how they form (basic), 9E2 recycling of rock material over long timescales (deepens Year 3, rocks and soils).

Exercise P  Do you remember?

1
FWhat is the name of a rock that has grains and sometimes fossils in layers? Write the word.
2
FWhat is the name of the hard outer layer of the Earth that we stand on? Write the word.
3
FWhat is the name for small pieces of rock or soil carried by wind or water? Write the word.
4
FWhat is 3 x 40? Write the number.
5
FWhat is the name of the star at the centre of our solar system? Write the word.
4.1

The structure of the Earth

Year 9
9E1: the structure of the Earth: crust, mantle, outer and inner core
Video lesson: The structure of the EarthComing soon
Story. A geology club cuts a model Earth in half, like a peach. Inside there is a thin skin, a thick layer, then two cores. “How do we know what is inside, if no one has been there?” a pupil asks. The teacher says that scientists study how earthquake waves travel.

The Earth has four layers. The crust is the thin, solid outer layer that we live on. Below it is the mantle, a thick layer of hot solid rock that flows very slowly over long times. The centre is the core. The outer core is liquid iron and nickel. The inner core is solid iron and nickel, because the pressure there is very high.

crust (thin, solid)mantle (solid, flows slowly)outer core (liquid)inner core (solid)
Cross-section of the Earth showing the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core

Key ideas

  • Crust: thin, solid, outermost layer.
  • Mantle: thick, hot, solid rock that flows very slowly.
  • Outer core: liquid iron and nickel.
  • Inner core: solid iron and nickel, under very high pressure.
Worked example 4.1.1
Which layer is the thinnest? Write the word.

Method. Compare the layers in the cross-section.

  1. Look. The crust is a thin band around the outside of the Earth.
    thin band
  2. Name it. So the crust is the thinnest layer.
    crust
  3. Write the answer.
    crust

Check. The mantle and core are much thicker. ✓

Worked example 4.1.2
Which layer is liquid iron and nickel? Write the words.

Method. Find the liquid layer in the table.

  1. Look. The table lists the outer core as liquid.
    liquid
  2. Name it. The outer core is the liquid layer of iron and nickel.
    outer core
  3. Write the answer.
    outer core

Check. The inner core is solid. ✓

Worked example 4.1.3
The inner core is hotter than the outer core, but it is solid. Give the reason. Write the word.

Method. Think about what keeps the iron solid.

  1. Think. The inner core is under very high pressure.
    very high pressure
  2. Name it. High pressure keeps the iron and nickel solid, so the reason is pressure.
    pressure
  3. Write the answer.
    pressure

Check. Pressure can keep a hot material solid. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: the mantle is solid, but it flows very slowly over millions of years. Do not call it liquid.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the layers from the outside in: crust, mantle, outer core, inner core.

Try it (with your teacher, or a grown-up at home). With your teacher, cut a peach or an orange in half. Draw and label four layers: skin, flesh, a hard stone, and a seed. Say which layer is most like the crust and which is most like the core in the real Earth. This is a model only.

Exercise 4A  The structure of the Earth

1
FWhat is the name of the outermost layer of the Earth? Write the word.
2
FWhich layer lies between the crust and the core? Write the word.
3
FWhich layer is made of liquid iron and nickel? Write the words.
4
FWhat is the state of the inner core? Write the word.
5
FIs the mantle solid or liquid? Write the word.
6
FIs the outer core solid or liquid? Write the word.
7
PSFrom the layers table, how many of the four layers are solid? Write the number. (Count the mantle as solid.)
8
PSHow many of the four layers of the Earth are liquid? Write the number.
9
PSWhich layer makes up most of the Earth between the crust and the core? Write the word.
10
PSHow many main layers does the Earth have, as described in the cross-section? Write the number.
11
RExplain why the inner core is solid, even though it is hotter than the outer core. Write one sentence.
12
RChallenge: explain why no one has drilled to the centre of the Earth. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying that the depth and temperature are far beyond what drilling can reach.
4.2

Tectonic plates and continental drift

Year 9
9E1: tectonic plates and continental drift (basic evidence)
Video lesson: Tectonic plates and continental driftComing soon
Story. A pupil looks at a world map and notices that the coastline of South America looks like it would fit against Africa. Her teacher explains that scientists found the same fossils on both continents, and that the continents may once have been joined.

The crust is broken into large slabs called tectonic plates. They float on the mantle and move slowly, a few centimetres each year. The idea that the continents have moved over time is called continental drift. It was first proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912.

Evidence for continental drift includes matching coastlines, matching fossils on continents now far apart, and matching rock types across oceans.

EvidenceWhat it shows
Matching coastlinesthe continents may have fitted together
Matching fossils on two continentsthe same animals lived on both, when they were joined
Matching rock typesthe same rocks formed on both sides of an ocean
Evidence for continental drift

Key ideas

  • Tectonic plates are large slabs of the crust that move slowly.
  • Continental drift is the idea that the continents have moved over time.
  • Fossils on continents now far apart are evidence for drift.
  • Plates move a few centimetres each year.
Worked example 4.2.1
A plate moves 3 cm each year. How far does it move in 1 000 000 years? Write the number of kilometres.

Method. Multiply the speed by the time, then convert cm to km.

  1. Multiply. 3 cm x 1 000 000 = 3 000 000 cm.
    3 000 000 cm
  2. Convert. 1 km is 100 000 cm, so divide by 100 000.
    3 000 000 / 100 000 = 30
  3. Write the answer.
    30

Check. Check: 30 x 100 000 = 3 000 000 cm, the same distance. ✓

Worked example 4.2.2
Who first proposed continental drift? Write the surname.

Method. Recall the scientist.

  1. Recall. The idea was first proposed in 1912.
    1912
  2. Name him. The scientist who proposed it was Alfred Wegener.
    Wegener
  3. Write the answer.
    Wegener

Check. Wegener proposed the idea before plate tectonics. ✓

Worked example 4.2.3
Name one piece of evidence that the continents were once joined. Accept any one: matching fossils, matching coastlines, or matching rock types.

Method. Think about what matches across an ocean.

  1. Think. Matching fossils or coastlines on two continents suggest they were joined.
    suggest they were joined
  2. Name one. So matching fossils is evidence for continental drift.
    matching fossils
  3. Write the answer.
    Accept any one: matching fossils, matching coastlines, or matching rock types.

Check. Any one matching feature is enough. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: plates move a few centimetres a year, not a few metres. The movement is slow but adds up over millions of years.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Use the word plate for the large slabs of crust, and mantle for the layer they float on.

Try it (with your teacher, or a grown-up at home). With your teacher, cut two pieces of paper in the shape of South America and Africa, and fit them together. Then say what other evidence you would need to be sure the continents were once joined.

Exercise 4B  Tectonic plates and continental drift

1
FWhat is the name of the large slabs of the crust that move? Write the words.
2
FWhat is the idea that the continents have moved over time? Write the words.
3
FName one piece of evidence for continental drift. Accept any one: matching coastlines, matching fossils, or matching rock types.
4
FWhich layer do the plates float on? Write the word.
5
FDo the tectonic plates still move today? Write yes or no.
6
FSouth America and Africa are on opposite sides of which ocean? Write the word.
7
PSA plate moves 3 cm each year. How far does it move in 10 years? Write the number of centimetres.
8
PSA plate moves 2 cm each year for 5 000 000 years. How many kilometres does it move? Write the number.
9
PSFossils of the same kind of animal are found on two continents now far apart. Do these fossils suggest the continents were once joined? Write yes or no.
10
PSContinental drift was first proposed in which year? Write the number.
11
RExplain why many scientists did not accept continental drift at first. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying no mechanism was known to move the continents.
12
RChallenge: explain how the idea of tectonic plates improved on continental drift. Accept any sentence saying the plates move on the mantle, which gives a mechanism for the movement.
4.3

Earthquakes and volcanoes at plate boundaries

Year 9
9E1: earthquakes and volcanoes at plate boundaries
Video lesson: Earthquakes and volcanoes at plate boundariesComing soon
Story. A news report says there has been an earthquake in one country, and a volcano erupted in another. The class looks at a map and sees that both places are on the edges of plates, not in the middle.

Most earthquakes and volcanoes happen at the edges of tectonic plates, called plate boundaries. There are three types of boundary. At a divergent boundary, plates move apart and new crust forms. At a convergent boundary, plates move towards each other, and one plate can sink under the other. At a transform boundary, plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes.

DivergentConvergentTransformarrows show how the plates move
Three types of plate boundary: plates apart, together, and sliding past
BoundaryPlate movementWhat happens
constructive (divergent)plates move apartnew crust forms; volcanoes and some earthquakes
destructive (convergent)plates move towards each otherearthquakes; volcanoes where one plate sinks
conservative (transform)plates slide past each otherearthquakes
Plate boundaries and what happens at each

Key ideas

  • Earthquakes and volcanoes happen mainly at plate boundaries.
  • Divergent: plates move apart. Convergent: plates move together. Transform: plates slide past.
  • Magma rises through cracks; when it reaches the surface it is called lava.
  • An earthquake is a sudden release of energy as plates move.
Worked example 4.3.1
At which type of boundary do plates move apart? Write the word.

Method. Recall the boundary types.

  1. Recall. At a divergent boundary, plates move apart.
    move apart
  2. Name it. So the boundary type is divergent.
    divergent
  3. Write the answer.
    divergent

Check. Iceland is on a divergent boundary. ✓

Worked example 4.3.2
At which type of boundary do plates slide past each other? Write the word.

Method. Recall the boundary types.

  1. Recall. Plates sliding past each other are at a transform boundary.
    sliding past
  2. Name it. So the boundary type is transform.
    transform
  3. Write the answer.
    transform

Check. Transform boundaries cause earthquakes. ✓

Worked example 4.3.3
At which boundary does one plate sink under another, causing volcanoes? Write the word.

Method. Recall the boundary types.

  1. Recall. At a convergent boundary, plates move together, and one can sink.
    one can sink
  2. Name it. So the boundary type is convergent.
    convergent
  3. Write the answer.
    convergent

Check. Sinking plates melt and produce magma. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a volcano is not always at a boundary; some occur over hot spots. Most, however, are at plate boundaries.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the boundary with its movement, for example “convergent, plates move towards each other”.

Try it (with your teacher, or a grown-up at home). With your teacher, look at a world map of volcanoes and earthquakes. Mark where the plate boundaries lie. Do not visit a volcano. Write one sentence describing the pattern you see.

Exercise 4C  Earthquakes and volcanoes at plate boundaries

1
FWhere are most earthquakes and volcanoes found? Write the words.
2
FWhat is magma called when it reaches the surface? Write the word.
3
FWhich type of boundary is also called destructive? Write the word.
4
FAt which boundary is new crust formed? Write the word.
5
FWhat is an earthquake? Write the words.
6
FWhat is the name of the point underground where an earthquake starts? Write the word.
7
PSIceland lies on a boundary where plates move apart. Which type of boundary is this? Write the word.
8
PSTwo plates move in opposite directions, each at 2 cm per year. What is their total separation each year, in cm? Write the number.
9
PSHow many types of plate boundary are described in the table? Write the number.
10
PSAre earthquakes common in the middle of a plate, far from any boundary? Write yes or no.
11
RExplain why a country close to a plate boundary needs to plan for earthquakes. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying the risk is higher near a boundary.
12
RChallenge: explain why a volcano is more likely at a convergent boundary than in the middle of a plate. Accept any sentence saying one plate sinks and melts, producing magma that rises.
4.4

Igneous and sedimentary rocks

Year 9
9E2: the rock cycle: how igneous and sedimentary rocks form (basic)
Video lesson: Igneous and sedimentary rocksComing soon
Story. A class collects rock samples from a beach and a quarry. One sample has layers and shells. Another has large, sparkling crystals. The teacher asks the class to say how each rock formed.

Igneous rock forms when magma or lava cools and becomes solid. Cooling slowly underground makes large crystals, as in granite. Cooling quickly at the surface makes small crystals, as in basalt.

Sedimentary rock forms when sediment builds up in layers. The layers are pressed together and cemented, a process called compaction. Sedimentary rock often has grains in layers, and often contains fossils, such as sandstone and limestone.

RockHow it formsTextureExample
igneousmagma or lava cools and becomes solidlarge crystals if cooled slowly; small if fastgranite (slow); basalt (fast)
sedimentarylayers of sediment are pressed and cementedgrains of sand or fossils in layerssandstone, limestone
metamorphicexisting rock is changed by heat and pressure, without meltingcrystals in bands or layersmarble (from limestone); slate (from mudstone)
The three rock types, how they form, their texture and examples

Key ideas

  • Igneous: magma or lava cools and becomes solid; slow cooling gives large crystals.
  • Sedimentary: sediment is pressed and cemented into layers; often contains fossils.
  • Grains in layers suggest a sedimentary rock.
  • Granite is igneous; sandstone and limestone are sedimentary.
Worked example 4.4.1
A rock cooled slowly underground, and has large crystals. Is it igneous or sedimentary? Write the word.

Method. Link the cooling to the rock type.

  1. Think. Magma that cools slowly underground forms an igneous rock.
    cools slowly
  2. Name it. So the rock is igneous.
    igneous
  3. Write the answer.
    igneous

Check. Large crystals mean slow cooling. ✓

Worked example 4.4.2
Name a sedimentary rock made of sand grains. Write the word.

Method. Recall the sedimentary rocks.

  1. Recall. Sand grains pressed together form sandstone.
    sand grains
  2. Name it. So the rock is sandstone.
    sandstone
  3. Write the answer.
    sandstone

Check. Sandstone is sedimentary. ✓

Worked example 4.4.3
Why does granite have large crystals? Write the reason in one word: slow or fast.

Method. Think about how it cooled.

  1. Think. Granite cooled slowly underground.
    cooled slowly
  2. Name it. So the crystals grew large, because cooling was slow.
    slow
  3. Write the answer.
    slow

Check. Fast cooling gives small crystals, as in basalt. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: crystal size tells you how fast a rock cooled, not how old it is.

Exam tip

Exam tip. For an igneous rock, link the crystal size to the cooling speed. For a sedimentary rock, link layers to fossils.

Try it (with your teacher, or a grown-up at home). With your teacher, look at a sample of sandstone or limestone, and a sample of granite if you have one. Describe the grains and layers, and say whether the rock formed from sediment or from cooling magma.

Exercise 4D  Igneous and sedimentary rocks

1
FWhat is the name of the rock formed when magma cools underground? Write the word.
2
FWhich igneous rock forms from lava cooling quickly at the surface, with small crystals? Write the word.
3
FWhich igneous rock has large crystals because it cooled slowly underground? Write the word.
4
FWhat is sediment? Write the words.
5
FWhat is the name of the process that presses sediment layers together? Write the word.
6
FName a sedimentary rock made of shells and skeletons. Write the word.
7
PSSample B has grains in layers and shell fossils. Name its rock type. Write the word.
8
PSSample A has large interlocking crystals. Name its rock type. Write the word.
9
PSDid granite cool quickly or slowly? Write the word.
10
PSA sedimentary rock has 5 layers. How many layers would there be after 2 more layers were added? Write the number.
11
RExplain why sedimentary rock often contains fossils. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying remains are buried and preserved as the layers form.
12
RChallenge: compare how granite and basalt form. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying both form from cooling magma or lava, but granite cools slowly underground and basalt cools quickly at the surface.
4.5

Metamorphic rocks and the rock cycle

Year 9
9E2: metamorphic rocks; the rock cycle; recycling of rock material over long timescales (deepens Year 3)
Video lesson: Metamorphic rocks and the rock cycleComing soon
Story. A geologist shows a piece of marble. It was once limestone, made of shells, and it was changed deep in the Earth. The class is asked: “Has this rock been recycled?”

Metamorphic rock forms when existing rock is changed by heat and pressure, without melting. Marble forms from limestone; slate forms from mudstone.

The rock cycle shows how rocks change over millions of years. Rock is worn down by weathering and erosion to make sediment, which becomes sedimentary rock. Rock can be heated and pressed into metamorphic rock, or melted into magma, which cools to form igneous rock. The rock material is recycled.

magmaigneoussedimentarymetamorphicsedimentcoolingweathering, erosionheat and pressuremelting
The rock cycle: magma, igneous, sediment, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, with the processes between them

Key ideas

  • Metamorphic rock forms from heat and pressure, without melting.
  • Marble comes from limestone; slate comes from mudstone.
  • Weathering and erosion make sediment.
  • The rock cycle recycles rock material over millions of years.
Worked example 4.5.1
Marble forms from which rock? Write the word.

Method. Recall what marble is made from.

  1. Recall. Marble forms when limestone is heated and pressed.
    limestone
  2. Name it. So marble forms from limestone.
    limestone
  3. Write the answer.
    limestone

Check. Limestone is sedimentary, and marble is metamorphic. ✓

Worked example 4.5.2
What process breaks rock into smaller pieces, to make sediment? Write the word.

Method. Recall the process.

  1. Recall. Rock is broken into pieces by the weather.
    broken into pieces
  2. Name it. This is weathering.
    weathering
  3. Write the answer.
    weathering

Check. Erosion then carries the pieces away. ✓

Worked example 4.5.3
A sedimentary rock is buried deep and heated and pressed, without melting. Which rock type does it become? Write the word.

Method. Think about heat and pressure.

  1. Think. Heat and pressure without melting change a rock into a new type.
    without melting
  2. Name it. So the new rock is metamorphic.
    metamorphic
  3. Write the answer.
    metamorphic

Check. Heat and pressure make metamorphic rock. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: metamorphic rock is not melted rock. If the rock melts, it becomes magma, and the cooled result is igneous.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Describe the rock cycle with arrows: weathering, erosion, compaction, heat and pressure, melting, cooling.

Try it (with your teacher, or a grown-up at home). With your teacher, look at the sample of marble or slate if available, and at limestone. Compare how they look and feel. Say which process the limestone went through to become marble.

Exercise 4E  Metamorphic rocks and the rock cycle

1
FWhat type of rock forms when existing rock is changed by heat and pressure? Write the word.
2
FWhat does metamorphic mean? Write the words.
3
FWhich metamorphic rock forms from mudstone? Write the word.
4
FWhat is the name of the process that wears rock down by the weather? Write the word.
5
FWhat is the name of the process that carries sediment away? Write the word.
6
FIn the rock cycle, which process turns rock into magma? Write the word.
7
FIs the rock cycle a cycle that never ends? Write yes or no.
8
PSHow many rock types are in the rock cycle? Write the number.
9
PSName the metamorphic rock formed when limestone is heated and pressed. Write the word.
10
PSA sediment layer forms in 2 years. How many layers form in 10 years? Write the number.
11
RExplain why the rock cycle takes a very long time. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying processes such as weathering, burial and melting are slow, taking millions of years.
12
RChallenge: explain how a sedimentary rock could be recycled into a new rock. Accept any sentence saying it can be heated and pressed to metamorphic rock, or melted to magma and cooled to igneous rock.

Chapter summary

SkillMethod
Layers of the EarthCrust (thin, solid), mantle (solid, flows slowly), outer core (liquid), inner core (solid).
Continental driftContinents have moved; evidence includes matching fossils, coastlines and rocks.
Plate boundariesDivergent (apart), convergent (together, one sinks), transform (slide past); most earthquakes and volcanoes.
Igneous rockMagma or lava cools and solidifies; slow cooling gives large crystals.
Sedimentary rockSediment is compacted and cemented into layers; often contains fossils.
Metamorphic rock and cycleHeat and pressure change existing rock without melting; rock material is recycled over millions of years.

Can you…?

  • I can name the four layers of the Earth and say what each is made of
  • I can give evidence for continental drift and explain plate movement
  • I can link earthquakes and volcanoes to the three plate boundary types
  • I can describe how igneous and sedimentary rocks form, and identify them by texture
  • I can describe the rock cycle, including metamorphic rock, over millions of years

Key terms

crust
the thin, solid, outer layer of the Earth
mantle
the thick layer of hot, solid rock below the crust that flows very slowly
outer core
the liquid layer of iron and nickel
inner core
the solid centre of iron and nickel, under very high pressure
tectonic plate
a large slab of the crust that moves slowly
continental drift
the idea that the continents have moved over time
plate boundary
the edge of a tectonic plate, where earthquakes and volcanoes are common
magma
molten rock below the surface
lava
magma that has reached the surface
igneous rock
rock formed when magma or lava cools and solidifies
sediment
small pieces of rock or material carried and dropped by water or wind
sedimentary rock
rock formed when sediment is compacted and cemented in layers
metamorphic rock
rock changed by heat and pressure, without melting
rock cycle
the process by which rocks change and are recycled over millions of years

Exercise 4Z  Check-up

1
Which layer of the Earth is the thinnest? Write the word.
2
Which layer is liquid iron and nickel? Write the words.
3
What are the large slabs of the crust called? Write the words.
4
Who first proposed continental drift, in 1912? Write the surname.
5
At which boundary do plates slide past each other? Write the word.
6
What is magma called once it reaches the surface? Write the word.
7
Granite has large crystals. Did it cool slowly or quickly? Write the word.
8
A plate moves 3 cm each year. How far does it move in 10 years? Write the number of centimetres.
9
Name the metamorphic rock formed from limestone. Write the word.
10
Explain why the mantle is solid but can still flow over long times. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying the solid rock flows very slowly under heat and pressure over millions of years.

Total 21 marks. Allow about 21 minutes.

Exercise 4X  Practice test questions

1
FName the layer of the Earth that lies between the crust and the outer core. Write the word.[1 mark]
2
FWhich type of plate boundary is found where plates move apart? Write the word.[1 mark]
3
FWhat type of rock forms when sediment is pressed and cemented into layers? Write the word.[1 mark]
4
FName one piece of evidence for continental drift. Accept any one: matching coastlines, matching fossils, or matching rock types.[1 mark]
5
PSA plate moves 2 cm each year. How far does it move in 5 years? Write the number of centimetres.[2 marks]
6
FDescribe how igneous rock with large crystals forms. Write one sentence.[2 marks]
7
FExplain how marble forms from limestone. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying limestone is heated and pressed without melting, which changes it into marble.[2 marks]
8
PSDescribe two processes in the rock cycle that make sediment. Accept any two: weathering and erosion.[2 marks]
9
RExplain why earthquakes and volcanoes are common at a convergent boundary. Write one sentence. Accept any sentence saying the plates collide and one can sink, causing earthquakes and magma.[3 marks]
10
FGive the order of the layers of the Earth from the outside in, and say which layer is liquid. Write the layers in order and the liquid layer.[3 marks]
11
RExplain in two sentences how a sedimentary rock can become a metamorphic rock and then an igneous rock. Accept any answer saying heat and pressure change it into metamorphic rock, and melting then cooling makes igneous rock.[3 marks]
← Chapter 3: Variation, natural selection and evolutionChapter 5: The solar system, gravity, day and year →

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