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KS3 English · Year 8Chapter 7 · Word classes, clauses and sentence effect
Year 8 · Chapter 7

Word classes, clauses and sentence effect

By the end of this chapter you will be able to

  • Name the word class of a word from what it does in its sentence
  • Use a modal verb to show possibility, certainty or obligation
  • Identify a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase and an adverbial phrase
  • Find the main and subordinate clauses in a sentence, and the relative clause
  • Classify a sentence by its clauses, and explain the effect of embedding, parallel structure or a cumulative sentence

You should already know

  • Word classes and sentence structure (Year 7, Chapter 7 of this book)
  • Clauses, subjects and verbs (Year 6 grammar)

Where this leads

  • Tense, aspect, mood, cohesion and register in writing (Chapter 8 of this book)
  • Writing narrative: sustained, planned and crafted (Chapter 10 of this book)

National Curriculum for England, Key Stage 3 English, Year 8. Content: Name word classes and what they do, including modal verbs and adverbials (KS3 grammar, G1), Identify phrases: noun, verb, adverbial and prepositional phrases (KS3 grammar, G1), Identify main, subordinate and relative clauses, and embedded clauses (KS3 grammar, G2), Classify sentences as simple, compound, complex or minor, and explain their effect (KS3 grammar, G2), Use embedding, parallel structure and cumulative sentences for effect in your own writing (KS3 writing, W4).

Exercise P  Do you remember?

1
FWrite the word class of quickly in "She ran quickly." Write one word.
2
FWhich word is the verb in "The dog waits." Write the word only.
3
FWrite the word class of the in "the market". Write one word.
4
FWrite the word class of market in "the market". Write one word.
5
FWrite the word for a sentence with one main clause only. Write one word.
7.1

Word classes, modal verbs and adverbials

Year 8
Name word classes and what they do, including modal verbs and adverbials (KS3 grammar, G1)
Video lesson: Word classes, modal verbs and adverbialsComing soon
Story. A writer of a market scene chooses each word for its class: nouns name things, verbs show actions, adverbs tell how or when, and modal verbs show the writer's view of what might or must happen.

Passage: Holm Street at dusk (original; read it, then answer the questions)

Late in the afternoon, the market in Holm Street begins to empty. Stallholders who have sold out of bread fold their tables, and the last buyers, carrying bags of onions and apples, hurry towards the bus stop. Behind them, a small dog waits patiently by the fountain, because someone promised it a biscuit. Nobody has told the dog that the promise was made by a child who has since gone home. The lamps flicker on one by one. The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops, and the square falls quiet except for the splash of the water and the slow scrape of a broom.

Key ideas

  • A word class is the job a word does in a sentence, such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb, determiner, pronoun, conjunction or preposition.
  • A modal verb (may, might, must, could, should, will) shows possibility, certainty or obligation.
  • An adverbial tells how, when, where or why, and can be one word or a phrase.
Worked example 7.1.1
What word class is quickly in "The last buyers hurry quickly towards the bus stop"?

Method. Decide what the word tells us.

  1. Find the word. Quickly is in the sentence.
    quickly
  2. Decide what it does. It tells how the buyers hurry.
    how the buyers hurry
  3. Name the word class. A word that tells how is an adverb.
    adverb
  4. Write the answer.
    adverb

Check. quickly is an adverb. ✓

Worked example 7.1.2
Which word is a modal verb that shows possibility? Choose one: may, dog or patiently.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. May shows possibility, as in "The dog may wait for hours".
    may fits
  3. Reject the other choices. Dog is a noun and patiently is an adverb, so neither is a modal verb.
    dog and patiently do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    may

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.1.3
What does must show in "The square must be cleared before dusk"?

Method. Think about what the modal verb tells the reader.

  1. Find the modal. Must is a modal verb.
    must
  2. Decide what it shows. Must shows that something has to happen.
    has to happen
  3. Name the meaning. The modal shows obligation.
    obligation
  4. Write the answer.
    obligation

Check. must shows obligation. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a word can be different classes in different sentences. Decide the class from what the word does in its sentence.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Ask: what job is the word doing here? Name the word class from that job.

Exercise 7A  Practice: word classes and modal verbs

1
FWhat word class is bread in this sentence? "Stallholders who have sold out of bread fold their tables." Write one word class.
2
FWhat word class is fold in this sentence? "Stallholders who have sold out of bread fold their tables." Write one word class.
3
FWhat word class is patiently in this sentence? "A small dog waits patiently by the fountain." Write one word class.
4
FWhat word class is finally in this sentence? "The wind finally drops." Write one word class.
5
FWhich word is a modal verb? Choose one: will, quickly, dog or the.
6
FWhich modal verb shows strong obligation? Choose one: must, might, could or may.
7
FWhich modal verb shows possibility? Choose one: might, must, should or shall not.
8
FWhich word class is "the" in "the square"? Choose one: determiner, adverb, verb or conjunction.
9
FWhich word class is "and" in "onions and apples"? Choose one: conjunction, adjective, preposition or pronoun.
10
PSWhich word in "The lamps flicker on one by one" is a preposition? Choose one: on, flicker, one or lamps.
11
PSWrite a sentence using the modal verb could to show possibility.
12
PSWhich is an adverbial of time in "Late in the afternoon, the market begins to empty"? Choose one: Late in the afternoon, the market, to empty or begins.
13
PSWhat word class is may in this sentence? "The dog may wait by the fountain." Write one word class.
14
PSWhich word class is "carrying" in "carrying bags of onions"? Choose one: verb, noun, adverb or pronoun.
15
RWhich word class is "which" in "The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops"? Choose one: relative pronoun, adverb, determiner or noun.
16
RExplain how the modal verb in "may wait" changes the meaning of the sentence, in one sentence.
17
RWhich word class is "patiently" in "waits patiently"? Choose one: adverb, adjective, noun or pronoun.
18
RWhat word class is scrape in this sentence? "The slow scrape of a broom fills the square." Write one word class.
19
RChallenge: write one sentence that uses a modal verb to show obligation and one adverb.
7.2

Phrases: noun, verb, adverbial and prepositional

Year 8
Identify phrases: noun, verb, adverbial and prepositional phrases (KS3 grammar, G1)
Video lesson: Phrases: noun, verb, adverbial and prepositionalComing soon
Story. A phrase is a group of words that work together as one unit inside a sentence. A noun phrase names a thing, a verb phrase shows an action, and a prepositional phrase begins with a preposition such as on, by or in.

In the passage, "by the fountain" is a prepositional phrase, and "the slow scrape of a broom" is a noun phrase.

Key ideas

  • A noun phrase has a noun at its heart (the head word), with words that describe it, such as the slow scrape of a broom.
  • A verb phrase is the verb and its helpers, such as has sold out.
  • A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and ends with a noun phrase, such as by the fountain.
  • An adverbial phrase tells how, when, where or why, and can be a group of words.
Worked example 7.2.1
Identify the prepositional phrase in "a small dog waits patiently by the fountain".

Method. Find the preposition, then the words that follow it.

  1. Find the preposition. By is a preposition.
    by
  2. Add the noun phrase. The noun phrase after by is the fountain.
    the fountain
  3. Give the phrase. The prepositional phrase is by the fountain.
    by the fountain
  4. Write the answer.
    by the fountain

Check. The prepositional phrase is identified. ✓

Worked example 7.2.2
What is the head word of the noun phrase "the slow scrape of a broom"?

Method. Find the main noun, the word the phrase is built around.

  1. Find the nouns. Scrape and broom are nouns.
    scrape
  2. Find the head word. Scrape is the main noun; broom is in a phrase after of.
    Scrape
  3. Name the head word. The head word is scrape.
    scrape
  4. Write the answer.
    scrape

Check. The head word is scrape. ✓

Worked example 7.2.3
Identify the verb phrase in "the wind has blown all day".

Method. Find the verb and its helper.

  1. Find the main verb. Blown is the main verb.
    blown
  2. Find the helper. Has helps the main verb.
    has
  3. Give the phrase. The verb phrase is has blown.
    has blown
  4. Write the answer.
    has blown

Check. The verb phrase is has blown. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a prepositional phrase is not the same as a clause. It has no verb of its own, so it cannot stand as a sentence.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Find the head word first. Then add the words that belong to it.

Exercise 7B  Practice: phrases

1
FWhich is the prepositional phrase in "towards the bus stop"? Choose one: towards the bus stop, bus stop, the bus or hurry.
2
FWhich is the noun phrase in "the splash of the water"? Choose one: the splash of the water, splash, of or quietly.
3
FWhat is the head word of the noun phrase "a small dog"?
4
FHow many words are in the noun phrase "a small dog"? Write the number.
5
FWhich is the verb phrase in "the lamps flicker on one by one"? Choose one: flicker, lamps, one or on one by one.
6
PSWhich is an adverbial phrase in "The lamps flicker on one by one"? Choose one: on one by one, the lamps, flicker or The lamps.
7
PSWrite the prepositional phrase in "The wind finally drops across the square."
8
PSWhich is a prepositional phrase? Choose one: in the afternoon, flicker, quickly or the market.
9
PSWhat is the head word of the noun phrase "the last buyers"?
10
RWhich is the noun phrase in "carrying bags of onions and apples"? Choose one: bags of onions and apples, carrying, and or of.
11
PSWrite the verb phrase in "Stallholders have sold out of bread."
12
RWhich phrase is a noun phrase with a head word that is an abstract noun? Choose one: the promise, by the fountain, waits patiently or after dusk.
13
PSWrite a noun phrase with at least three words, about a stall in a market.
14
RWhich is a prepositional phrase in "The square falls quiet except for the splash of the water"? Choose one: except for the splash of the water, falls, quiet or the square.
15
RExplain why "by the fountain" is not a clause, in one sentence.
16
PSWrite the adverbial phrase in "the buyers hurry towards the bus stop."
17
RChallenge: write a sentence with a prepositional phrase and an adverbial phrase, and name each.
7.3

Clauses: main, subordinate and relative

Year 8
Identify main, subordinate and relative clauses, and embedded clauses (KS3 grammar, G2)
Video lesson: Clauses: main, subordinate and relativeComing soon
Story. A clause has a subject and a verb. A main clause can stand alone; a subordinate clause cannot, and depends on a main clause. A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun such as who, which or that.

In the passage, "because someone promised it a biscuit" is a subordinate clause, and "which has blown all day" is a relative clause.

Key ideas

  • A main clause makes complete sense on its own.
  • A subordinate clause adds to a main clause, and begins with a subordinating conjunction such as because, when, although or if.
  • A relative clause adds information about a noun, and begins with who, which or that.
Worked example 7.3.1
What type of clause is "because someone promised it a biscuit"?

Method. Check whether it can stand alone, then check its opening word.

  1. Check it stands alone. It cannot make sense on its own.
    cannot make sense
  2. Check the opening word. Because is a subordinating conjunction.
    because
  3. Name the clause. It is a subordinate clause.
    subordinate clause
  4. Write the answer.
    subordinate clause

Check. The clause is subordinate. ✓

Worked example 7.3.2
Which clause is the relative clause in "The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops"?

Method. Find the pronoun that starts the extra information.

  1. Find the pronoun. Which begins the extra information.
    which
  2. Find the clause. The clause is which has blown all day.
    which has blown all day
  3. Check the noun. It adds information about the wind.
    about the wind
  4. Write the answer.
    which has blown all day

Check. The relative clause is which has blown all day. ✓

Worked example 7.3.3
Which is the main clause of "Although it rained, the market opened"? Choose one: the market opened, Although it rained or it rained.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. The market opened makes sense on its own, so it is the main clause.
    the market opened fits
  3. Reject the other choices. Although it rained cannot stand alone, and it rained is inside the subordinate clause.
    Although it rained and it rained do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    the market opened

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a clause has its own subject and verb. A group of words with no verb is a phrase, not a clause.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Ask: can it stand alone? If not, it is subordinate or relative.

Exercise 7C  Practice: main, subordinate and relative clauses

1
FHow many main clauses are in "The lamps flicker on one by one."? Choose one: 1, 0, 2 or 3.
2
FWhich is a subordinate clause? Choose one: when the lamps flicker, the lamps flicker, the square is quiet or the dog waits.
3
FWhich word begins the subordinate clause in "although the dog waits"? Choose one: although, the, dog or waits.
4
FWhich word begins the relative clause in "the bus, which is late, arrives"? Choose one: which, the, bus or arrives.
5
FWrite the relative pronoun in "the stallholder who sold bread". Write one word.
6
PSWhich is the main clause in "Because the lamps flicker, the buyers hurry"? Choose one: the buyers hurry, Because the lamps flicker, the lamps flicker or hurry.
7
PSWhich clause is subordinate in "The dog waits because it was promised a biscuit"? Choose one: because it was promised a biscuit, The dog waits, it was promised or a biscuit.
8
PSWrite the subordinate clause in "When the market closes, the stallholders go home."
9
PSWhich is a relative clause in "The stall, which sells bread, is closed"? Choose one: which sells bread, The stall is closed, is closed or sells bread.
10
RIdentify the relative clause in "The bus that leaves at six is full", and say what it tells us.
11
RWhich phrase is NOT a clause in "the wind, which has blown all day"? Choose one: all day, the wind, which has blown or has blown.
12
RHow many main clauses are in "The lamps flicker, and the wind drops"? Write the number.
13
RWhich is the best description of "the square falls quiet"? Choose one: a main clause, a subordinate clause, a relative clause or a noun phrase.
14
RExplain why "which has blown all day" is a clause and not a phrase, in one sentence.
15
RWhich is the subordinate clause in "Although the wind drops, the lamps stay on"? Choose one: Although the wind drops, the lamps stay on, the wind or stay on.
16
RChallenge: write a sentence with one main clause and one relative clause.
7.4

Sentence types and their effect

Year 8
Classify sentences as simple, compound, complex or minor, and explain their effect (KS3 grammar, G2; W4)
Video lesson: Sentence types and their effectComing soon
Story. A writer chooses sentence types for effect. A short sentence can create tension; a long sentence with embedded clauses can slow the reader; a list of parallel phrases can build a rhythm.
Sentence typeWhat it isExample from the passage
simpleone main clauseThe lamps flicker on one by one.
compoundtwo main clauses joined by and, but or orThe square falls quiet except for the splash of the water and the slow scrape of a broom.
complexa main clause and a subordinate clauseBehind them, a small dog waits patiently by the fountain, because someone promised it a biscuit.
minorno main verb; a fragment for effectQuiet.

Key ideas

  • A simple sentence has one main clause.
  • A compound sentence joins two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction.
  • A complex sentence has a main clause and at least one subordinate clause.
  • A minor sentence has no main verb, and is used for effect.
  • Embedding puts a clause inside another clause, which can slow the reader; parallel structure repeats a pattern; a cumulative sentence builds up detail.
Worked example 7.4.1
Classify "The lamps flicker on one by one."

Method. Count the main clauses.

  1. Count the main clauses. There is one main clause.
    one main clause
  2. Check for a subordinate clause. There is none.
    no subordinate clause
  3. Name the type. It is a simple sentence.
    simple
  4. Write the answer.
    simple

Check. It is simple. ✓

Worked example 7.4.2
Which sentence type is "Quiet."? Choose one: minor, compound or complex.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. Quiet has no main verb, so it is a minor sentence used for effect.
    minor fits
  3. Reject the other choices. Compound and complex sentences need at least one main clause with a verb.
    compound and complex do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    minor

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.4.3
What is the effect of the minor sentence "Quiet."?

Method. Think about what the single word does to the rhythm.

  1. Find the sentence. Quiet is a single word after a long sentence.
    Quiet
  2. Explain the rhythm. It breaks the rhythm and slows the reader.
    slows the reader
  3. Name the effect. It creates a sudden pause and a feeling of calm.
    a sudden pause and a feeling of calm
  4. Write the answer.
    it creates a sudden pause and a feeling of calm

Check. The effect is explained. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a long sentence is not always complex. Count the clauses, not the words.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the type, quote a part of it, and say what effect the choice has on the reader.

Exercise 7D  Practice: sentence types and effect

1
FWhich sentence type is "The dog waits, and the buyers hurry"? Choose one: compound, simple, complex or minor.
2
FWhich sentence type is "The buyers hurry because the lamps flicker"? Choose one: complex, simple, compound or minor.
3
FWhich sentence type is "Dusk."? Choose one: minor, simple, compound or complex.
4
FWhich sentence type is "The stallholder packs the table."? Choose one: simple, compound, complex or minor.
5
FWrite the conjunction that joins the two main clauses in "The lamps flicker and the wind drops." Write one word.
6
PSWhich sentence has parallel structure? Choose one: the splash of the water and the slow scrape of a broom, the splash, then quiet, quiet, and then the water or the water falls.
7
PSWhich sentence is the best example of embedding? Choose one: The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops., The wind drops., Quiet. or The wind drops and the lamps flicker..
8
PSWhat is the main effect of embedding in "The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops"? Choose one: it slows the sentence and adds detail, it makes the sentence faster, it removes the verb or it makes a list.
9
RClassify "Stallholders fold their tables, buyers hurry, dogs wait, lamps flicker." and say what it shows.
10
RWhich sentence is a cumulative sentence that builds detail? Choose one: The buyers hurry, carrying bags, past the fountain, towards the stop., Quiet., The lamps flicker. or The dog waits..
11
RWhich is the best effect of the minor sentence "Quiet." after a long sentence? Choose one: a sudden pause that changes the rhythm, a long list, a question for the reader or a change of tense.
12
PSWrite a compound sentence about the market, joined by a coordinating conjunction.
13
PSWhich sentence is complex? Choose one: Although the market is closing, the dog waits by the fountain., The dog waits., Quiet. or The lamps flicker, and the dog waits..
14
RExplain the effect of a short sentence after a long one, in one sentence.
15
RWhich sentence has parallel structure with three items? Choose one: onions, apples and bread, onions, quickly and bread, onions, of apples and the bread or bread and quiet and onions.
16
RChallenge: write a short paragraph of three sentences: a simple sentence, a complex sentence and a minor sentence, and say what each adds.

Chapter summary

SkillMethod

Can you…?

    Key terms

    Exercise 7Z  Check-up

    1
    What word class is quickly in this sentence? "The last buyers hurry quickly towards the bus stop." Write one word class.
    2
    Which word is a modal verb? Choose one: may, dog, patiently or the.
    3
    Write the prepositional phrase in "a small dog waits by the fountain". Write the phrase.
    4
    What is the head word of the noun phrase "the slow scrape of a broom"? Write one word.
    5
    What is the type of "The lamps flicker on one by one."? Choose one: simple, compound, complex or minor.
    6
    What is the subordinate clause in "The dog waits because it was promised a biscuit"? Choose one: because it was promised a biscuit, The dog waits, a biscuit or it was promised.
    7
    Which is the relative clause in "The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops"? Choose one: which has blown all day, finally drops, the wind or all day.
    8
    Which sentence type is "The stall is closed, and the buyers leave"? Choose one: compound, simple, complex or minor.
    9
    Name the effect of a list of parallel phrases, such as "the splash of the water and the slow scrape of a broom".
    10
    Explain why "Quiet." is a minor sentence, in one sentence.

    Total 18 marks. Allow about 18 minutes.

    Exercise 7X  Practice test questions

    1
    FName the word class of "quickly" in "She ran quickly." Write one word.[1 mark]
    2
    FIdentify the subordinate clause in "Although it rained, the market opened." Write the clause.[1 mark]
    3
    FName the sentence type of "The lamps flicker, and the wind drops." Write one word.[1 mark]
    4
    FIdentify the verb phrase in "Stallholders have sold out of bread." Write the phrase.[1 mark]
    5
    FName the modal verb in "The square must be cleared before dusk," and say what it shows. Use one sentence.[2 marks]
    6
    FIdentify the relative clause in "The stall, which sells bread, is closed." Write the clause.[2 marks]
    7
    RClassify the sentence "Quiet." and give its effect in one sentence.[3 marks]
    8
    RExplain the effect of embedding in "The wind, which has blown all day, finally drops." Use one sentence.[2 marks]
    9
    PSWrite one compound sentence about a market, joined by a coordinating conjunction.[2 marks]
    10
    RExplain what parallel structure means, and give one example from a list of three nouns.[3 marks]
    ← Chapter 6: Comparing texts: themes, perspectives and methodsChapter 8: Tense, aspect, mood, cohesion and register in writing →

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