Websink Prep UKKS3 EnglishYear 9 chaptersEnglish textbooksReceptionYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Year 6Year 7Year 8Year 9Browse allPast papersFind a tutorBecome a tutor
KS3 English · Year 9Chapter 7 · Word classes, clauses and sentence effect in longer prose
Year 9 · Chapter 7

Word classes, clauses and sentence effect in longer prose

By the end of this chapter you will be able to

  • I can name the word class of a word in its sentence.
  • I can explain how a modal verb shows degrees of certainty.
  • I can find an adverbial and a prepositional phrase, and say what each adds.
  • I can find main, subordinate and relative clauses.
  • I can classify a sentence as simple, compound, complex or minor.
  • I can write periodic, cumulative, parallel and balanced sentences for effect.

You should already know

  • Word classes: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun and preposition (Year 8, Chapter 7 of this book)
  • Main and subordinate clauses (Year 8, Chapter 7 of this book)

Where this leads

  • Tense, mood, cohesion and register: choosing for purpose (Year 9, Chapter 8 of this book)
  • Writing narrative: extended, controlled and crafted (Year 9, Chapter 10 of this book)

National Curriculum for England, Key Stage 3 English, Year 9. Content: Recognise word classes and their functions, including modal verbs, prepositional phrases and adverbials (KS3 grammar, G1), Recognise main, subordinate and relative clauses, and simple, compound, complex and minor sentences (KS3 grammar, G2), Choose sentence structures for effect: periodic, cumulative, parallel and balanced (KS3 writing, W4).

Exercise P  Do you remember?

1
FWhat is a noun? Write one short phrase.
2
FWhat is a verb? Write one short phrase.
3
FWhat is a conjunction? Write one short phrase.
4
FWrite the word that means the same as quickly.
5
FWrite the plural of the word stile.
7.1

Word classes and their functions

Year 9
Recognise word classes and what each does in a sentence (KS3 grammar, G1)
Video lesson: Word classes and their functionsComing soon
Context. Two friends climb a ridge on a cold day. The writer uses ordinary word classes with care: nouns name the places, verbs show the actions, and adjectives and adverbs describe them. Read the passage and notice which class each word belongs to in its sentence.

Text 1: The ridge walk (original passage, five paragraphs)

1The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter. We climbed it anyway.

2Halfway up. Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold. Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins.

3'We might be late,' he said, although neither of us was in any hurry.

4The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky, which had been grey all morning, began to clear. From the ridge we could see the whole valley: the river, the church spire, the fields that had flooded in the spring.

5Nobody spoke for a long time. Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Key ideas

  • A word class is decided by what a word does in its sentence, not only by what it means.
  • Nouns name things; verbs show actions or states; adjectives describe nouns; adverbs describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.
  • Pronouns replace nouns; determiners come before nouns; prepositions show position, time or direction; conjunctions join.
Worked example 7.1.1
Which word class is "muddy" in "The path ... was muddy"?

Method. Find the word and the noun it describes.

  1. Find the word. Muddy comes after was, and describes the path.
    was muddy
  2. Find the noun it describes. The noun is path.
    The path
  3. Name the class. A word that describes a noun is an adjective.
    adjective
  4. Write the answer.
    adjective

Check. Muddy describes the noun path. ✓

Worked example 7.1.2
Which word class is "anyway" in "We climbed it anyway"?

Method. Find the verb it describes.

  1. Find the verb. Anyway describes how the verb climbed happens.
    We climbed it anyway
  2. Check the job. A word that describes a verb is an adverb.
    describes a verb
  3. Name the class. Anyway is an adverb.
    adverb
  4. Write the answer.
    adverb

Check. Anyway describes the verb climbed. ✓

Worked example 7.1.3
Which word class is "the" in "the stile"? Choose one: determiner, pronoun or verb.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. The comes before the noun and says which stile is meant, so it is a determiner.
    determiner fits
  3. Reject the other choices. A pronoun would replace the noun, and a verb would show an action, so neither fits.
    pronoun and verb do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    determiner

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: the same word can belong to different classes. Up is an adverb in "Halfway up" but a preposition in "up to the ridge".

Exam tip

Exam tip. Ask what the word does in the sentence. Name the class, and say which word it describes or joins.

Exercise 7A  Practice: word classes

1
FWhich word class is "village" in "the village"?
2
FWhich word class is "like" in "like a scatter of dropped coins"? Choose one: preposition, verb or adverb.
3
FWhich word class is "We" in "We climbed it anyway"? Choose one: pronoun, noun or determiner.
4
FWhich word class is "began" in "the sky began to clear"? Choose one: verb, adjective or adverb.
5
FCopy the adjective that describes the path.
6
FWrite the conjunction that joins "the path ... was muddy" and "the stile ... had broken". Write one word.
7
FWhich determiner comes before "church spire"? Write one word.
8
FWhich word class is "in" in "in the winter"? Choose one: preposition, adverb or conjunction.
9
FExplain how "up" changes class in "Halfway up" and in "up to the ridge".
10
FHow many nouns are in "the river, the church spire, the fields"? Write the number.
11
FWhat is the class of "might" in "We might be late"? Choose one: modal verb, adverb or adjective.
12
RName the class of "grey" in "the sky, which had been grey all morning", and say what it describes.
7.2

Modal verbs and degrees of certainty

Year 9
Explain how modal verbs show degrees of certainty, obligation and possibility (KS3 grammar, G1)
Video lesson: Modal verbs and degrees of certaintyComing soon
Context. Sam is unsure about the time, so he chooses his words carefully. Modal verbs such as might, could, should, would and must show how certain a speaker is, and whether they feel an obligation. Read the passage and notice each modal verb.

Text 1: The ridge walk (original passage, five paragraphs)

1The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter. We climbed it anyway.

2Halfway up. Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold. Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins.

3'We might be late,' he said, although neither of us was in any hurry.

4The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky, which had been grey all morning, began to clear. From the ridge we could see the whole valley: the river, the church spire, the fields that had flooded in the spring.

5Nobody spoke for a long time. Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Key ideas

  • A modal verb sits before another verb and shows the speaker's attitude: possibility, certainty, or obligation.
  • Might and could show possibility; will and would show a firm or expected future; must shows strong certainty or obligation; should shows advice.
  • The degree of certainty is the key to the choice of modal verb.
Worked example 7.2.1
What degree of certainty does "might" express in "We might be late"?

Method. Look at the modal and what it allows.

  1. Find the modal. Might is in We might be late.
    We might be late
  2. Check the meaning. Might shows that something is possible, but not certain.
    possible, but not certain
  3. Name the degree. So it expresses possibility, not certainty.
    possibility, not certainty
  4. Write the answer.
    possibility, not certainty

Check. Might shows possibility. ✓

Worked example 7.2.2
Which modal verb shows the strongest certainty? Choose one: must, might or could.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. Must shows that the speaker is sure, so it is the strongest of the three.
    must fits
  3. Reject the other choices. Might and could show only possibility, which is weaker.
    might and could do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    must

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.2.3
Why does Sam use "might" rather than "will"?

Method. Compare the certainty of might and will.

  1. Compare the words. Will shows a firm future; might shows possibility.
    firm future
  2. Read the context. Sam is not sure they will be late, and no one is in a hurry.
    neither of us was in any hurry
  3. Explain the choice. Might fits his uncertainty.
    to show he is unsure, which fits the uneasy moment
  4. Write the answer.
    to show he is unsure, which fits the uneasy moment

Check. The choice of modal fits the context. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a modal verb must come before a main verb, as in might be or would come. Do not use it alone as the main verb.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the modal, then say how certain it makes the speaker, using the words possible, certain or obliged.

Exercise 7B  Practice: modal verbs

1
FWhich modal shows the least certainty? Choose one: might, must or will.
2
FWhich modal verb is in "we both knew that we would come back"? Write the word.
3
FWhich modal expresses a firm future intention? Choose one: will, might or could.
4
FWrite one sentence using "must" to show certainty.
5
FWhich modal would best express a polite request? Choose one: could, must or shall never.
6
FHow many modal verbs are in "We might be late"? Write the number.
7
FCopy the words in paragraph 3 that contain a modal verb of possibility.
8
FRewrite "We will be late" using "might" to show less certainty.
9
FWhich modal verb expresses obligation or advice? Choose one: should, might or would.
10
FExplain the difference between "must" and "might" in one sentence.
11
RJudge whether "would" in "we would come back" shows certainty or habit. Give one reason.
7.3

Adverbials and prepositional phrases

Year 9
Identify adverbials and prepositional phrases, and explain how they change meaning (KS3 grammar, G1)
Video lesson: Adverbials and prepositional phrasesComing soon
Context. An adverbial tells the reader when, where, how or why something happens. A prepositional phrase often works as an adverbial: it starts with a preposition, such as at, in, from or for, and ends with a noun phrase. Move an adverbial and the meaning can change.

Text 1: The ridge walk (original passage, five paragraphs)

1The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter. We climbed it anyway.

2Halfway up. Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold. Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins.

3'We might be late,' he said, although neither of us was in any hurry.

4The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky, which had been grey all morning, began to clear. From the ridge we could see the whole valley: the river, the church spire, the fields that had flooded in the spring.

5Nobody spoke for a long time. Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Key ideas

  • A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition, such as in, at, from, below or for.
  • An adverbial tells when, where, how or why. It can be one word (then) or a phrase (in the spring).
  • Moving an adverbial can change emphasis, and sometimes the meaning.
Worked example 7.3.1
Identify the prepositional phrase in "Sam stopped to look back at the village".

Method. Find the preposition, then the noun phrase that follows it.

  1. Find the preposition. At introduces the phrase.
    at
  2. Find the noun phrase. The village is the noun phrase that follows at.
    the village
  3. Name the phrase. The prepositional phrase is at the village.
    at the village
  4. Write the answer.
    at the village

Check. The phrase starts with at and ends with the village. ✓

Worked example 7.3.2
Which word is an adverbial of time in paragraph 5? Choose one: then, muddy or the.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. Then tells when Sam laughed, so it is an adverbial of time.
    then fits
  3. Reject the other choices. Muddy describes a noun, and the is a determiner, so neither is an adverbial.
    muddy and the do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    then

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.3.3
How does "in the spring" change the meaning of "the fields that had flooded"?

Method. Think about what the phrase adds.

  1. Find the phrase. The fields that had flooded in the spring.
    in the spring
  2. Name the adverbial. In the spring is an adverbial of time.
    adverbial of time
  3. Explain the change. It places the flood in one season, not just at some time.
    a particular season
  4. Write the answer.
    it places the flooding in a particular season

Check. The adverbial is named and its effect is explained. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a phrase that starts with a preposition is not always an adverbial. In "the fields in the spring", the phrase describes the noun fields.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the adverbial type (time, place, manner, reason), then say what it adds to the verb.

Exercise 7C  Practice: adverbials and prepositional phrases

1
FCopy the adverb of time that begins paragraph 5. Write one word.
2
FWhich prepositional phrase tells where the village lay? Write the phrase.
3
FWhat type of adverbial is "for a long time"? Choose one: adverbial of time, adverbial of place or adverbial of manner.
4
FWhich phrase is an adverbial of manner? Choose one: slowly, in the spring or after lunch.
5
FHow many prepositional phrases are in "From the ridge we could see the whole valley"? Write the number.
6
FWhich phrase is an adverbial of place in paragraph 4? Choose one: from the ridge, in the spring or the sky.
7
FRewrite "Nobody spoke for a long time" with the adverbial moved to the front.
8
FIn "from the ridge", which word is the preposition? Choose one: from, the or ridge.
9
FWhich verb in paragraph 2 describes how the village is placed? Write the verb.
10
FWhat is the adverbial "all morning" in "which had been grey all morning"? Choose one: adverbial of time, adverbial of place or adverbial of manner.
11
RExplain why the writer uses "in the spring" after "flooded".
7.4

Main, subordinate and relative clauses

Year 9
Identify main, subordinate and relative clauses in a passage (KS3 grammar, G2)
Video lesson: Main, subordinate and relative clausesComing soon
Context. A clause has a subject and a verb. A main clause can stand alone. A subordinate clause cannot, and it depends on a main clause. A relative clause adds information about a noun, and begins with a relative pronoun such as which, who or that.

Text 1: The ridge walk (original passage, five paragraphs)

1The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter. We climbed it anyway.

2Halfway up. Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold. Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins.

3'We might be late,' he said, although neither of us was in any hurry.

4The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky, which had been grey all morning, began to clear. From the ridge we could see the whole valley: the river, the church spire, the fields that had flooded in the spring.

5Nobody spoke for a long time. Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Key ideas

  • A main clause makes sense on its own.
  • A subordinate clause depends on a main clause, and often begins with a conjunction such as although, as, because, when or if.
  • A relative clause adds information about a noun, and begins with which, who, whom or that.
Worked example 7.4.1
Identify the subordinate clause in "although neither of us was in any hurry".

Method. Find the clause that cannot stand alone.

  1. Find the clause. The clause has a subject, neither of us, and a verb, was.
    neither of us was
  2. Check if it stands alone. It starts with although, so it depends on the main clause.
    starts with although
  3. Name it. It is a subordinate clause.
    although neither of us was in any hurry
  4. Write the answer.
    although neither of us was in any hurry

Check. The clause depends on a main clause. ✓

Worked example 7.4.2
What type of clause is "which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins"? Choose one: relative clause, main clause or noun clause.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. It begins with which and adds information about the village.
    relative clause fits
  3. Reject the other choices. It cannot stand alone as a main clause, and it does not name a thing in the subject position.
    main clause and noun clause do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    relative clause

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.4.3
How many main clauses are in "The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky began to clear"?

Method. Find each clause with its own subject and verb that can stand alone.

  1. Find the first main clause. The wind picked up.
    The wind picked up
  2. Find the second main clause. The sky began to clear.
    the sky began to clear
  3. Find the subordinate clause. As we reached the top depends on a main clause.
    as we reached the top
  4. Write the answer.
    2

Check. Two main clauses and one subordinate clause. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a clause must have its own subject and verb. A phrase such as to look back has no subject, so it is not a clause.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Find each verb. For each verb, find its subject. Then decide whether the clause can stand alone.

Exercise 7D  Practice: main, subordinate and relative clauses

1
FHow many main clauses are in "The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter"? Write the number.
2
FWhich word introduces the subordinate clause in paragraph 3? Choose one: although, said or hurry.
3
FCopy the relative clause that describes the village.
4
FWhat type of clause is "that we would come back"? Choose one: noun clause, relative clause or main clause.
5
FWhich relative pronoun begins the clause about the sky? Write the word.
6
FIdentify the subordinate clause in "The wind picked up as we reached the top", and name its conjunction.
7
FWhich sentence has exactly one main clause? Choose one: We climbed it anyway., The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky began to clear. or Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us..
8
FHow many subordinate clauses are in "Nobody spoke for a long time"? Write the number.
9
FWrite one main clause and one subordinate clause about the walk.
10
FWhat is the function of "which had been grey all morning"? Choose one: it adds information about the sky, it starts a new sentence or it gives a command.
11
FWhich conjunction joins the two main clauses in "Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside"? Write the word.
12
RExplain why the writer uses an embedded relative clause in paragraph 4.
7.5

Simple, compound, complex and minor sentences

Year 9
Classify sentences as simple, compound, complex or minor, and say how each is built (KS3 grammar, G2)
Video lesson: Simple, compound, complex and minor sentencesComing soon
Context. Sentences vary in length and shape. A simple sentence has one main clause. A compound sentence joins two main clauses. A complex sentence has one main clause and a subordinate clause. A minor sentence has no main verb, but it still makes a point.

Text 1: The ridge walk (original passage, five paragraphs)

1The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter. We climbed it anyway.

2Halfway up. Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold. Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins.

3'We might be late,' he said, although neither of us was in any hurry.

4The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky, which had been grey all morning, began to clear. From the ridge we could see the whole valley: the river, the church spire, the fields that had flooded in the spring.

5Nobody spoke for a long time. Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Key ideas

  • Simple: one main clause, such as We climbed it anyway.
  • Compound: two or more main clauses joined by and, but or or, such as The path was muddy, and the stile had broken.
  • Complex: one main clause and a subordinate clause, such as We climbed it, although the path was muddy.
  • Minor: a sentence without a main verb, such as Halfway up.
Worked example 7.5.1
What type of sentence is "We climbed it anyway."?

Method. Count the main clauses.

  1. Count the clauses. It has one subject, we, and one verb, climbed.
    We climbed it anyway
  2. Check for subordinate. There is no subordinate clause.
    no subordinate clause
  3. Name the type. One main clause makes it simple.
    simple
  4. Write the answer.
    simple

Check. One main clause, no subordinate. ✓

Worked example 7.5.2
What type of sentence is "Halfway up."? Choose one: a minor sentence, a compound sentence or a complex sentence.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. It has no main verb, so it is a minor sentence.
    a minor sentence fits
  3. Reject the other choices. It has no two main clauses, and no subordinate clause, so it is not compound or complex.
    a compound sentence and a complex sentence do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    a minor sentence

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.5.3
What type of sentence is "The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter."?

Method. Find the clauses, and the conjunction between them.

  1. Find the clauses. The path was muddy; the stile had broken.
    The path up to the ridge was muddy
  2. Find the joining word. And joins two main clauses.
    and
  3. Name the type. Two main clauses joined by and make a compound sentence.
    compound
  4. Write the answer.
    compound

Check. Two main clauses joined by and. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a long sentence is not automatically complex. Count the main clauses and the subordinate clauses.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Count the main verbs. Then look for a subordinate clause. A minor sentence has no main verb at all.

Exercise 7E  Practice: sentence types

1
FWhat type of sentence is "Nobody spoke for a long time."? Choose one: simple, compound or minor.
2
FWhat type of sentence is "Halfway up."? Choose one: minor, simple or complex.
3
FWhat type of sentence is "Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins."? Choose one: complex, simple or compound.
4
FWhat type of sentence is "The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky began to clear."? Choose one: compound-complex, simple or minor.
5
FWhich is a complex sentence? Choose one: We climbed it, although the path was muddy., We climbed it anyway. or We climbed it, and we were tired..
6
FHow many minor sentences are in paragraph 2? Write the number.
7
RExplain why a writer uses a minor sentence such as "Halfway up."
8
FWhich sentence is compound? Choose one: Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside., Sam laughed. or Sam laughed when we reached the top..
9
FWhich conjunction joins the two main clauses in "The path was muddy, and the stile had broken"? Write the word.
10
FWhich of these is a simple sentence? Choose one: We climbed it anyway., We climbed it, but we were late. or We climbed because we wanted the view..
11
FWrite one complex sentence about the walk.
12
RExplain why "Nobody spoke for a long time." is simple, even though it is longer than "We climbed it anyway."
7.6

Sentence structures for effect

Year 9
Choose periodic, cumulative, parallel and balanced sentence structures for effect (KS3 writing, W4)
Video lesson: Sentence structures for effectComing soon
Context. A writer can shape a sentence to create an effect. A periodic sentence holds its main point to the end, to create suspense. A cumulative sentence builds its meaning by adding details after a main clause. A parallel sentence repeats a pattern. A balanced sentence sets two halves against each other.

Text 1: The ridge walk (original passage, five paragraphs)

1The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter. We climbed it anyway.

2Halfway up. Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold. Sam stopped to look back at the village, which lay below us like a scatter of dropped coins.

3'We might be late,' he said, although neither of us was in any hurry.

4The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky, which had been grey all morning, began to clear. From the ridge we could see the whole valley: the river, the church spire, the fields that had flooded in the spring.

5Nobody spoke for a long time. Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Key ideas

  • Periodic: the main clause comes at the end, after a subordinate clause, creating suspense.
  • Cumulative: the main clause comes first, and details build on it.
  • Parallel: a repeated pattern of words or phrases, such as the river, the church spire, the fields.
  • Balanced: two halves of similar structure set against each other, such as The hills were high, but the valley was low.
Worked example 7.6.1
Identify the parallel structure in "the river, the church spire, the fields".

Method. Look at the pattern of each item in the list.

  1. Find the items. The river, the church spire, the fields.
    the river, the church spire
  2. Check the pattern. Each item begins with the, then a noun.
    the
  3. Name the structure. It is a parallel list, with the same pattern repeated.
    three nouns in a list, each with the same pattern of the and a noun
  4. Write the answer.
    three nouns in a list, each with the same pattern of the and a noun

Check. The pattern is repeated for each item. ✓

Worked example 7.6.2
What is a periodic sentence? Choose one: a sentence that holds its main clause to the end, a sentence with only one clause or a sentence that lists items.

Method. Test each choice against the sentence or the text.

  1. Read what the question asks for. Decide what the sentence or the text needs.
  2. Test the choice. A periodic sentence delays the main clause, so the point comes last.
    a sentence that holds its main clause to the end fits
  3. Reject the other choices. A single clause is simple, and a list is parallel, not periodic.
    a sentence with only one clause and a sentence that lists items do not fit
  4. Write the answer.
    a sentence that holds its main clause to the end

Check. The choice fits the sentence or the text. ✓

Worked example 7.6.3
Identify the cumulative sentence in paragraph 5.

Method. Find the main clause, then the details added after it.

  1. Find the main clause. Then Sam laughed.
    Then Sam laughed
  2. Find the added details. The sound carried across the hillside, and we both knew.
    the sound carried across the empty hillside
  3. Explain the structure. The sentence builds its meaning by adding clauses one after another.
    builds its meaning by adding clauses
  4. Write the answer.
    Then Sam laughed, and the sound carried across the empty hillside, and we both knew that we would come back.

Check. The cumulative build-up is explained. ✓

Watch out

Watch out: a long sentence is not periodic just because it is long. A periodic sentence holds its main clause until the end.

Exam tip

Exam tip. Name the structure, then say what the effect is: suspense, build-up, rhythm or contrast.

Exercise 7F  Practice: sentence structures for effect

1
FWhich sentence is periodic? Choose one: Although neither of us was in any hurry, Sam said we might be late., We climbed it anyway, and we were tired. or Sam laughed..
2
FRewrite "We might be late, although we are not in any hurry" as a periodic sentence.
3
FWhich sentence is parallel? Choose one: We walked, we talked, and we laughed., We walked and then we talked. or We walked quickly..
4
FHow many items are in the list "the river, the church spire, the fields"? Write the number.
5
FWrite a balanced sentence about the walk.
6
FWhich is a balanced sentence? Choose one: The hills were high, but the valley was low., The hills were high. or The hills, high, and low..
7
FCopy the phrase in paragraph 4 that begins the list of things seen from the ridge.
8
RIdentify the cumulative sentence in paragraph 4 and explain its effect.
9
FWhat is the effect of the short sentence "Nobody spoke for a long time."? Choose one: it creates a pause and quiet, it confuses the reader or it lists facts.
10
FWhich list in the passage uses parallel structure? Write the first item.
11
RJudge which structure is more effective in paragraph 4: the parallel list or the cumulative sentence. Give one reason.

Chapter summary

SkillMethod
Word classesDecide the class by what the word does in its sentence
Modal verbsName the modal and the degree of certainty it shows
AdverbialsName the type (time, place, manner, reason) and what it adds
ClausesFind each verb and subject; a main clause stands alone, a subordinate clause does not
Sentence typesCount the main clauses, then look for a subordinate clause; minor sentences have no main verb
EffectName the structure (periodic, cumulative, parallel, balanced) and say what it does

Can you…?

  • I can name the word class of a word in its sentence
  • I can explain what a modal verb shows about certainty
  • I can find an adverbial and a prepositional phrase
  • I can identify main, subordinate and relative clauses
  • I can classify a sentence as simple, compound, complex or minor
  • I can write a periodic, cumulative, parallel or balanced sentence

Key terms

modal verb
a verb such as might, must or should, which shows certainty or obligation
adverbial
a word or phrase that tells when, where, how or why
prepositional phrase
a phrase that starts with a preposition and ends with a noun phrase
main clause
a clause that can stand alone as a sentence
subordinate clause
a clause that depends on a main clause
relative clause
a clause that adds information about a noun, starting with which, who or that
periodic sentence
a sentence that holds its main clause until the end
cumulative sentence
a sentence that builds meaning by adding details after the main clause

Exercise 7Z  Check-up

1
Which word class is "anyway" in "We climbed it anyway"?
2
Which word class is "muddy" in "The path ... was muddy"? Choose one: adjective, adverb or noun.
3
What degree of certainty does "must" show, compared with "might"? Choose one: stronger certainty, weaker certainty or no certainty.
4
Which adverbial of time begins paragraph 5? Write the word.
5
What is the prepositional phrase "below us" doing in "lay below us"? Choose one: an adverbial of place, an adverbial of time or a noun phrase.
6
How many main clauses are in "Nobody spoke for a long time, and then Sam laughed"? Write the number.
7
What type of clause is "which had been grey all morning"? Choose one: relative clause, main clause or noun clause.
8
What type of sentence is "Mud to the ankles, and the wind still cold."? Choose one: minor, simple or complex.
9
Which sentence is periodic? Choose one: Although the path was steep, we climbed it., We climbed it, and we were tired. or We climbed..
10
Write one balanced sentence about the valley.

Total 22 marks. Allow about 22 minutes.

Exercise 7X  Practice test questions

1
FName the word class of "anyway" in "We climbed it anyway". Write one word.[1 mark]
2
FWrite the modal verb in "We might be late". Write one word.[1 mark]
3
RWhat degree of certainty does "might" show in "We might be late"? Write one short phrase.[2 marks]
4
FIdentify the prepositional phrase in "Sam stopped to look back at the village". Write the phrase.[2 marks]
5
FHow many main clauses are in "The wind picked up as we reached the top, and the sky began to clear"? Write the number.[2 marks]
6
FIdentify the subordinate clause in "although neither of us was in any hurry", and name its conjunction.[2 marks]
7
FWhat type of sentence is "The path up to the ridge was muddy, and the stile at the bottom had broken in the winter."?[2 marks]
8
PSWrite one complex sentence about the walk. It must have one main clause and one subordinate clause.[3 marks]
9
RExplain the effect of the minor sentence "Halfway up." Write one sentence.[2 marks]
10
RIdentify the parallel structure in "the river, the church spire, the fields". Write one sentence.[2 marks]
11
PSWrite one balanced sentence about the valley, using but to join two halves.[3 marks]
← Chapter 6: Comparing texts: ideas, methods and sustained comparisonChapter 8: Tense, mood, cohesion and register: choosing for purpose →

Websink Prep UK is an independent site. It is not affiliated with, endorsed by or sponsored by AQA, Pearson Edexcel, OCR, WJEC, Eduqas, CCEA, SQA, GL Assessment, CEM or the Department for Education. All exam board names and trademarks belong to their owners. Past papers are linked from the exam boards' own websites and are not hosted here.

About Websink Prep UK · Find a tutor · Privacy · Terms · Cookie settings